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INTRODUCTION3

Chapter 1. Collective violence and international criminal justice - towards an interdisciplinary approach&Alette SMEULERS3

1. Introduction3

2. A brief history of the international criminal justice system3

3. New areas of expertise6

4. Outline of the book8

References13

PART I. PERPETRATORS OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMES19

Chapter 2. The ordinariness of extraordinary evil: the making of perpetrators of collective violence&James E. WALLER19

1. Introduction19

2. Ordinary origins of extraordinary human evil22

3. Cultural construction of worldview26

4. Psychological construction of the "other"28

5. Social construction of cruelty31

6. Conclusion36

References37

Chapter 3. Rethinking the subjectivity of perpetrators of political violence&Don FOSTER39

1. Introduction39

2. Dominant accounts of perpetrators40

3. Criticism of the dominant accounts42

4. An alternative approach44

5. Two case studies48

5.1. The Eichmann case48

5.2. The case of John Deegan54

6. Implications and concluding remarks58

References60

PART II. COLLECTIVE CRIMES - INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY65

Chapter 4. Discourses on international criminality&Athanasios CHOULIARAS65

1. Introduction65

2. The collective nature of core crimes as the common ground of different fields of knowledge67

3. Criminology: state and state-corporate crime as instances of organizational deviance70

4. International criminal law: looking for the individual criminal, losing the delinquent state77

4.1. Contextual elements and admissibility criteria: 'Walks like a duck, swims like a duck, and quacks like a duck'... Ain't a duck!78

4.2. Modes of individual criminal liability: in search of the organizational role84

5. The rationale for the international criminal justice system89

6. Discussion92

References94

Chapter 5. Ascribing individual liability within a bureaucracy of murder&Mark OSIEL105

1. Introduction105

2. Easing superior responsibility: a new concept of effective control106

2.1. Roxin's theory of "domination over an organizational apparatus"107

3. Difficulties with Roxin's approach: a post-Weberian update110

3.1. The fungibility of subordinates114

3.2. Discretion enjoyed by subordinates114

3.3. Non-western military organization116

3.4. Shifting the evidentiary onus119

3.5. The sociology of mass atrocity122

3.6. The mental element124

4. Conclusion125

References127

Chapter 6. Seizing the "Grotian Moment": application of joint criminal enterprise liability to the proceedings of the Cambodia genocide tribunal&Michael P. SCHARF131

1. Introduction131

2. Did the Nuremberg precedent establish JCE as customary international law?134

2.1. Application of JCE at Nuremberg134

2.2. Nuremberg as a "Grotian Moment"143

2.3. The Concept of "Grotian Moment"146

3. Conclusion148

References151

Chapter 7. Criminologically explained reality of genocide, structure of the offence and the 'intent to destroy' requirement&Kai AMBOS153

1. Introduction153

2. Typologies in criminology154

3. The significance of the criminological typology of perpetrators for the offence of genocide159

4. Correspondence of categories of international criminal law with criminological typologies of perpetrators163

4.1. Regarding top-level perpetrators "intent to destroy" means knowledge and purpose166

4.2. As to mid-level perpetrators the knowledge-based approach is applicable166

4.3. Regarding the low-level perpetrators it is necessary to distinguish between state agents and private actors. While the former are normally informed about the genocidal (state) plan, the latter are not168

5. Conclusion: the structure of the genocide offence in light of the criminological findings170

References171

Chapter 8. ICTY and the culpability of different types of perpetrators of international crimes&Alette SMEULERS and Barbora HOLA175

1. Introduction175

2. Culpability of different types of perpetrators179

2.1. Highest level of blameworthiness: criminal masterminds180

2.2. High level of blameworthiness: careerists and fanatics181

2.3. Medium level of blameworthiness: devoted warriors183

2.4. Low level of blameworthiness: "criminals and sadists" and the otherwise law abiding citizens185

2.5. Lowest level of blameworthiness: compromised perpetrator188

3. ICTY sentencing case law188

4. Empirical findings190

4.1. Methodology190

4.1.1. Data Collection190

4.1.2. Method193

4.2. Results194

4.3. Discussion200

5. Conclusions203

References204

Chapter 9. Child soldiers: agency, enlistment, and the collectivization of innocence&Mark A. DRUMBL207

1. Introduction207

2. Criminally punishing adults for the conscription, enlistment, or use of child soldiers in hostilities210

2.1. Special Court for Sierra Leone210

2.2. International Criminal Court213

2.3. The agency of child soldiers: assumptions, narratives, and strategies215

2.4. Conclusion218

3. How do children end up in fighting forces?218

3.1. Forced conscription219

3.2. Voluntary enlistment222

3.3. Summary226

4. Conclusion227

References229

PART III. REFLECTIONS ON INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND THE ICC235

Chapter 10. The rough edges of the delicate mosaic: complexity theory and the early practice of the International Criminal Court&Salim A. NAKHJAVANI235

1. Introduction235

2. Some characteristics of complex adaptive systems237

3. Lens, metaphor, analogy, model... or nothing at all?239

4. Seeking complexity in international criminal justice243

4.1. The entry-into-force of the Rome Statute sets in motion a nonlinear, dynamic system243

4.2. Outcomes of decisions of the Court may be sensitively dependent on initial conditions and path-dependent245

4.3. The Rome Statute may co-evolve with 'neighboring' treaties246

5. Novel insights or repackaged goods?250

References251

Chapter 11. The law and politics of self-referrals&Sarah NOUWEN and Wouter WERNER255

1. Introduction255

2. Self-referrals and complementarity257

2.1. Inaction as a ground for admissibility260

2.2. Narrowing down the definition of a 'case'264

2.3. Broadening the concept of unwillingness265

2.4. Conclusion: legal aspects of self-referrals267

3. The politics of self-referrals267

3.1. ICC politics267

3.2. National politics268

3.3. Conclusion: politics of self-referrals269

References270

PART IV. FROM FACTS TO FIGURES275

Chapter 12. On research methods for international crimes - methodological issues in the empirical study of international crimes&Catrien BIJLEVELD275

1. Introduction275

2. Criminological areas of study276

3. Methodological backdrop to social science research278

3.1. Working with samples278

3.2. Causality280

3.3. The role of assumptions282

4. Research on international crimes283

4.1. Studying prevalence283

4.2. Etiology288

4.3. (Legal) reaction291

4.4. Victim studies292

5. Conclusion and some ways forward294

References295

Chapter 13. Sexual violence during war: variation and accountability&Elisabeth Jean WOOD297

1. Introduction297

2. Key concepts299

3. Incomplete explanations303

3.1. Type of conflict303

3.2. Opportunity303

3.3. Incentives305

3.4. Rape as a substitution for consensual sex306

3.5. Female combatants307

3.6. Sexual violence as instrumental for the group307

4. Theoretical framework309

4.1. Individual combatants309

4.2. Leadership strategy310

4.3. Institutions for combatant socialization310

4.4. Wartime dynamics312

4.5. Military hierarchy313

5. When is wartime rape a strategy of war? When is it rare? Top-down and bottom-across logics314

5.1. Explaining the absence of sexual violence: two logics315

5.1.1. The top-down logic315

5.1.2. The bottom-across logic317

5.2. Explaining rape as a strategy (or tactic) of war: two logics318

5.2.1. Top-down logic: rape as a strategy of war318

5.2.2. Bottom-across logic: rape as a tactic of war318

6. Conclusion319

References322

Chapter 14. Learning the hard way at the ICTY: statistical evidence of human rights violations in an adversarial information environment&Amelia HOOVER GREEN325

1. Introduction325

2. The prosecution's analysis327

2.1. Descriptive analysis327

2.2. Causal analysis330

3. Defense challenges333

3.1. Defining "statistics" and "the scientific method"334

3.2. "Fundamental flaws"336

4. The judgment337

5. Lessons learned343

6. Conclusions349

References350

PART V. FROM FIGURES TO FACTS355

Chapter 15. Methodology for the criminal investigation of international crimes&Xabier AGIRRE ARANBURU355

1. Introduction355

2. Seize the opportunity structure356

3. Beware of the inquisitorial temptation358

4. Take a multi-disciplinary approach361

5. Disregard simplistic explanations364

6. Analysis first365

7. Focus on specific and contextual elements367

8. Prioritize documentary evidence369

9. Look at the evidence as sample375

10. Prioritize insider and international witnesses376

11. Anticipate security needs379

References380

Chapter 16. Closing the gap in truth finding: from the facts of the field to the judge's chambers&Martin WITTEVEEN383

1. Introduction383

2. The facts384

3. The investigation386

3.1. Time lapse386

3.2. Consequences of time lapse388

3.3. Lack of documentation388

4. Issues of witnesses' memory389

4.1. Encoding phase390

4.2. Retention phase392

4.3. Retrieval phase393

5. Witnesses' recount of the facts - unprecedented challenges in the context of international crimes395

5.1. Trauma396

5.2. Quantative answers397

5.3. Misunderstandings398

5.4. Language challenges399

5.4.1. Rare languages400

5.4.2. Translation errors400

5.4.3. Lack of vocabulary401

5.5. Cultural differences402

5.5.1. Education and personal identities402

5.5.2. Behavior of witnesses403

5.5.3. Misinterpretation404

5.5.4. Witness's reluctance404

5.5.5. Oral culture and lack of sourcing405

6. After the witnesses the professionals take over406

6.1. Role of investigators406

6.2. Role of the prosecutor or trial attorney407

6.3. Role of the judges408

6.4. Dilemmas and possible changes409

7. The final stage - The judge's chambers411

References411

Chapter 17. Preserving the overview of law and facts: the Case Matrix&Morten BERGSMO, Olympia BEKOU and Annika JONES413

1. Introduction413

2. Some difficulties faced in relating law to facts in core international crimes cases416

2.1. Understanding the legal requirements for the prosecution of core international crimes416

2.2. Applying the legal requirements to large quantities of evidence419

3. The significance of an informed, efficient and precise approach to the application of law to facts in core international crimes cases420

3.1. The ability to pursue justice and the quality of the process421

3.2. The efficiency of the criminal justice process and the fight against impunity422

3.3. Promotion of the rights of the accused423

3.4. Summary424

4. The Case Matrix and the facilitation of the application of law to facts425

4.1. The Case Matrix425

4.2. The facilitation of the application of law to facts through use of the Case Matrix428

5. The ICC and the Case Matrix429

5.1. Adoption of the Case Matrix logic429

5.2. Justifications for the approach of the Chambers431

5.2.1. Expediency of the criminal process431

5.2.2. Protection of the rights of the accused432

6. Conclusion433

References433

EPILOGUE439

Chapter 18. Future perspectives on collective violence and international criminal justice&Stephan PARMENTIER and Estelle ZINSSTAG439

1. Introduction439

2. Types of violence: collective, international and political439

3. Types of responses: criminal prosecutions and beyond442

4. The need for an interdisciplinary approach445

References445

Contributors447