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1 Preliminaries1

A.Introduction into the Subject Matter: The Problem1

B.Methodology6

C.Aim of the Investigation8

D.Course of the Investigation9

E.Definitions11

Ⅰ.Pollution Reduction12

Ⅱ.Pollutant Release12

Ⅲ.Environment12

Ⅳ.Environmental Information12

Ⅴ.Categories of Environmental Information13

1.Disclosed by E-PRTR and TRI13

2.Not Disclosed by E-PRTR and TRI13

3.Ancillary Information13

2 Development of Pollution Reduction Instruments15

A.Point of Departure15

Ⅰ.Market Failure Due to Externality: The Problem15

1.Types of Externalities16

2.Technological Externalities and Allocation17

3.Externalities, Excludability, and Property Rights18

a) Free Rider Behaviour (Positive Externalities)19

b) Tragedy of the Commons (Negative Externalities)20

4.Summary20

Ⅱ.Selected Economic Approaches to Market Failure21

1.The Four Consumer's Surpluses (Hicks)21

2.The Economics of Welfare (Pigou)22

3.The Problem of Social Cost (Coase)23

4.The Economic Dynamics of Environmental Law (Driesen)24

Ⅲ.Environmental Innovation, Policy Mix and Capability Assessment25

1.Characteristics of Environmental Innovations: Double Externality and Regulatory Push/Pull25

2.Intelligent Regulation by Use of a Policy Mix26

3.Assessment of Instrument Capability27

Ⅳ.Interim Result28

B.Command and Control Instruments29

Ⅰ.Introduction30

Ⅱ.Direct Regulations for Production Processes and Products Under EU Laws31

1.Performance Standards31

2.Best Available Techniques32

Ⅲ.Direct Regulations for Production Processes and Products Under US Laws33

1.Performance Standards33

2.Best Available Techniques35

Ⅳ.Interim Result36

C.Market-Based Instruments37

Ⅰ.Introduction38

Ⅱ.Market Regulations Under EU Laws39

1.Environmental Taxes39

2.The Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading Scheme40

3.Environmental Liability46

Ⅲ.Market Regulations Under US Laws48

1.Environmental Taxes48

2.Emissions Trading49

a) The Acid Rain Programme49

b) Prospects for Federal Legislation on Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading50

3.Environmental Liability51

Ⅳ.Interim Result53

D.Conclusion of the Chapter55

3 E-PRTR Under EU Environmental Information Laws: The Collection57

A.Structure of the E-PRTR58

Ⅰ.Legislative History58

1.Decision 2005/370/EC58

2.Legislative Foundation of EPER: Article 15 (3) of Directive 96/61/EC58

3.Decision 2000/479/EC59

a) The Legal Framework of EPER59

aa) Establishment and Reporting Requirements59

bb) Reporting Cycle60

cc) Implementation60

dd) Data Dissemination60

b) Essentials from EPER Reviews61

aa) First EPER Review Report for the Year 200161

bb) Second EPER Review Report for the Year 200461

c) EPER as Distinguished from E-PRTR62

4.Sixth Environmental Action Programme62

a) Decision 1600/2002/EC62

b) Mid-Term Review 200763

5.Decision 2006/61/EC and the Relation to Other Pollutant Release Inventories64

Ⅱ.Current Legal Framework of the E-PRTR65

1.Establishment, Definitions, and Covered Environmental Media67

a) Establishment and Access to Information67

b) Definitions for Particular Terms68

aa) 'The Public' and 'Competent Authority'68

bb) 'Installation', 'Facility', 'Site' and 'Operator'69

cc) 'Substance' and 'Pollutant'69

dd) 'Release' and 'Diffuse Sources'69

ee) 'Off-Site Transfer' of 'Waste', 'Hazardous Waste' and 'Waste Water'71

ff) 'Disposal' and 'Recovery'73

gg) 'Reporting Year'73

c) Content of the E-PRTR73

2.Informational Structure74

a) The Standard Setting74

b) Ease of Public Access and Website Links74

3.Acquisition of Information Through Reporting Requirements75

a) Reporting by the Operator75

b) Reporting by the Member States78

c) Releases from Diffuse Sources78

4.Assurance and Assessment of Information Quality79

a) Quality Objectives According to Recitals79

b) Legal Duties of Operators, Competent Authorities and Commission79

c) Current State on Improvement of Information Quality81

aa) Legal Deficits in Quality Assessment by the Commission81

bb) Information Quality Improvement Through Eco-Management and Audit Scheme?81

5.Further Provisions83

a) Amendment Procedures83

b) Guidance Document83

c) Commission Review83

d) Additional Information to be Reported by the Member States84

e) Raising Awareness and Public Participation for Enhancement of E-PRTR84

f) Committee Procedure, Amendments to Other Directives and Entry into Force85

Ⅲ.Delimitation of REACH and E-PRTR86

1.General Aim and Scope87

2.Acquisition of Information Through the 'No Data, No Market' Principle87

3.Access to Information89

a) Tasks of the European Chemicals Agency89

b) Electronic Public Access: The REACH Inventory89

c) Access to Information Held by the European Chemicals Agency90

Ⅳ.Interim Result91

B.Confidentiality and Mandatory Environmental Information Disclosure92

Ⅰ.Confidentiality Under Article 11 of Regulation (EC) 166/200693

Ⅱ.Differences of Directive 2003/4/EC as Regards Environmental Information Disclosure95

1.Scope of 'Environmental Information'95

2.Disclosure Addressees: 'Public Authorities'96

3.Publication on Request96

4.Interim Result97

Ⅲ.Member States' Refusal of a Request: Article 4 (1) of Directive 2003/4/EC98

Ⅳ.Member States 'May Provide' Grounds for Refusal: Article 4 (2) of Directive 2003/4/EC99

Ⅴ.Commercial and Industrial Information and Other Intellectual Property: Article 4 (2), Sentence 1, (d) and (e)100

1.Legal Contours of Commercial and Industrial Information100

a) Link with the Member States' Concept of Confidentiality101

b) Differences Between Commercial and Industrial Information103

c) Prerequisites for the Presence of the Matter of Fact103

aa) Related to a Business Activity104

bb) Familiar Only to a Limited Group of People104

cc) Kept Secret According to the Will of the Business Proprietor105

dd) Legitimate Economic Interest for Confidentiality105

ee) 'Area Specific' Modification of the Confidentiality Concept for Pollutant Releases?106

d) Decision Competence of the Public Authority107

e) Absolute and Relative Protection of Confidentiality107

f) Interim Result107

2.Ownership of Commercial and Industrial Information and Other Intellectual Property108

a) Article 6 (1) TEU in Conjunction with Article 17 of the Charter108

b) Article 6 (2) TEU110

aa) State of the Law Under the Treaty of Nice110

bb) State of the Law Under the Treaty of Lisbon112

cc) The European Convention on Human Rights112

(1) Case-Law of the European Court of Human Rights113

(2) Literature114

(3) Interim Result114

c) Article 6 (3) TEU115

aa) Case-Law of the ECJ116

bb) Case-Law of the BVerfG and Literary Reactions116

cc) Interim Result118

d) Delimitation of Article 345 TFEU118

e) The Derivation of the EU Fundamental Rightto Property119

aa) Incorporation of Fundamental Rights into EU Law: Stauder v Ulm119

bb) Constitutional Traditions: lnternationale Handelsgesellschaft mbH121

cc) The 'Integral Part' Formula: Nold v Commission123

dd) Fundamental Protection of Property: Hauer v Land Rheinland-Pfalz124

ee) Interim Result126

f) The Scope of Protection of the EU Fundamental Right to Property in Detail127

aa) Selected Property Positions127

(1) Capital as Such ie a Levy: Schrader v Hauptzollamt Gronau127

(2) Established and Running Enterprise: Biovilac v EEC130

(3) Market Share: Germany v Council131

(4) Interim Result132

bb) Protection of Intellectual Property Rights133

(1) Confidential Commercial and Industrial Information as Property and Fundamentally Protected?133

(2) Registered Rights: Grammophon GmbH v Metro GmbH and Co KG136

3.Right to Pursue a Freely Chosen Occupation: Article 15, 16 of the Charter and the ECJ137

4.Interim Result138

Ⅵ.Other Member States' Grounds for Refusal to Disclose Under Directive 2003/4/EC138

1.Personal Data: Article 4 (2), Sentence 1, (f)139

2.Information Requested Provided on a Voluntary Basis: Article 4 (2), Sentence 1, (g)140

3.Confidentiality of Proceedings of Public Authorities: Article 4 (2), Sentence 1, (a)141

4.International Relations, Public Security or National Defence: Article 4 (2), Sentence 1, (b)141

5.Course of Justice: Article 4 (2), Sentence 1, (c)141

6.Information Relating to the Location of Rare Species: Article 4 (2), Sentence 1, (h)142

Ⅶ.Restrictions on the Member States' Refusal to Disclose: Article 4 (2), Sentences 2 to 4142

1.The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the EU: Article 37, 21, or 2?143

2.Union Policy on the Environment: Article 191 TFEU144

a) Introduction144

b) High Level of Environmental Protection: Article 191 (2)TFEU145

aa) Ranking and Principle145

bb) Positioning and Comment147

c) Pursuit of Environmental Objectives: Article 191 (1) TFEU147

aa) Preserving, Protecting and Improving the Quality of the Environment (Indent 1)148

bb) Protecting Human Health (Indent 2)148

d) Duties to Take Account of: Article 191 (3) TFEU (Indents 1 and 3)149

e) Legal Obligation of Article 191 (1) to (3) TFEU150

3.Integration Principle: Article 11 TFEU151

a) Content152

aa) Substantive Requirements152

bb) Procedural Requirements154

b) Legal Effect154

aa) Legal Obligation154

bb) Judicial Control155

4.Limitations of Other Fundamental Rights: Cases Standley and Safety High Tech155

5.Judgments of the ECJ Under Directives 90/313/EEC and 2003/4/EC157

a) Early Case-Law Under Directive 90/313/EEC157

aa) Scope of Environmental Information Ⅰ: Mecklenburg v Kreis Pinneberg157

bb) Application of a Charge for an Informational Request: Commission v Germany157

cc) Scope of Environmental Information Ⅱ: Glawischnig158

dd) Failure to Transpose Certain Obligations Under the Directive: Commission v France158

ee) Unlawfulness of Implied Refusal: Housieaux159

ff) Public Participation and Payment of Fees: Commission v Ireland (Ⅰ)160

b) Recent Case-Law Under Directive 2003/4/EC162

aa) Failure to Transpose the Entire Directive: Commission v h'eland (Ⅱ)162

bb) Interpretation of Exceptions: Commune de Sausheim v Azelvandre162

(1) Facts of the Case162

(2) Observations of Third Parties before the Court164

(3) Opinion of Advocate General Sharpston165

(4) Judgment of the ECJ167

(5) Appraisal of the Judgment169

(6) Article 4 (2), Sentences 2 to 4 of Directive 2003/4/EC Revisited171

a) Restrictive Interpretation Under Sentence 2171

b) Public Interest v Interest Served by Refusal Under Sentence 3172

c) Restrictions on Refusal for Information on Emissions/Releases Under Sentence 4173

aa) Restrictions on Confidential Commercial and Industrial Information174

(1) Impairment174

(2) Justification175

bb) Other Restricted Grounds for Refusal180

(1) Personal Data180

(2) Information Requested Provided on a Voluntary Basis181

(3) Confidentiality of Proceedings of Public Authorities181

(4) Information Relating to the Location of Rare Species181

cc) No Restrictions for Refusal on Residual Grounds?182

(1) Intellectual Property Rights182

(2) International Relations, Public Security or National Defence184

(3) Course of Justice184

Ⅷ.Article 4 (3) to (5) of Directive 2003/4/EC184

1.Publicly Accessible List of Criteria on How to Handle Requests185

2.Availability of Environmental Information in Part185

3.Refusal Notification to the Applicant185

Ⅸ.Interim Result186

C.Role of the European Environment Agency and Enforcement Mechanisms187

Ⅰ.European Environment Agency in a Nutshell187

1.Establishment188

2.Tasks and Organisation189

3.Legal Capacity and Assignment of Sovereign Regulatory Competence191

4.In Need of Sovereign Regulatory Competence?193

Ⅱ.Member States' Penalty Provisions197

Ⅲ.Access to Justice198

1.At EU Level Under Regulation (EC) 1049/2001198

a) Application for Documents: Article 6199

b) Processing of Initial Applications: Article 7199

c) Processing of Confirmatory Applications: Article 8199

d) Article 263, Sentence 4 TFEU: Locus Standi and the Problem with 'Individual Concern'200

e) Adding a Legal Reference to Articles 10 to 12 of Regulation (EC) 1367/2006?203

aa) Scope of Administrative Acts and Omissions203

bb) Request for Internal Review of Administrative Acts204

cc) Criteria for Entitlement at Union Level205

dd) Interpretation of 'Written Reply' and Access to the Court of Justice205

2.At Member State Level Under Article 6 of Directive 2003/4/EC206

Ⅳ.Interim Result207

D.Excursus: Requested Access to Information About Other Pollutants and Ancillary Information207

Ⅰ.The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the EU: Article 42208

Ⅱ.The Treaty: Article 15 (3) TFEU209

Ⅲ.Secondary EU Law210

1.Regulation (EC) 1049/2001210

2.Regulation (EC) 1367/2006212

Ⅳ.Judgments of the EU Courts on the Right of Access to Information213

1.Origins213

a) Fundamental Principle of Transparency: Netherlands v Council213

b) Existence of a Principle of the Right to Information at EU Level: Council v Hautala214

c) Legal Effect of the Rules of Procedure: Carvel and Guardian Newspaper Ltd v Council214

2.Contours of Access to Information of EU Institutions214

a) Scope of Agency Discretion to Disclose Information: Municipality of Hillegom v Hillenius214

b) Mandatory and Discretionary Exceptions: WWF UK v Commission215

c) Administrative Burden: Verein fur Konsumenteninformation v Commission218

d) Concrete Assessment and Statement of Reason: Interporc GmbH v Commission219

e) Documents Drawn Up by an Institution: ClientEarth v Commission219

3.Leadoff Contours of Exceptions for Information Disclosure220

a) Sensitive Documents: Sison v Council220

b) Release of Documents Containing Trade Secrets: Akzo v Commission221

c) Court Proceedings and Legal Advice: Sweden and Turco v Council222

d) Original 'Authorship Rule': Petrie and Others v Commission223

e) 'Authorship Rule' Revisited: Sweden and IFAW v Commission225

f) Partial Access: Mattila v Council and Commission227

4.Liability for Breach of Confidentiality: Adams v Commission228

Ⅴ.Interim Result229

E.Conclusion of the Chapter230

4 TRI Under US Environmental Information Laws: The Collection233

A.Structure of the TRI233

Ⅰ.Legislative History234

1.TRI as Congress' Response to the Chemical Catastrophe in Bhopal235

2.Initial Legislative Action in 1986237

3.Significant Changes in TRI Throughout the 1990s238

a) Pollution Prevention Act of 1990238

b) Inclusion of Federal Government Activities in 1993239

c) Expansion of Industrial Activities in 1997239

d) Adding Chemicals and Lowering Thresholds in 1999241

4.Significant Changes in TRI Throughout the 2000s242

a) Burden Reduction Under the Bush Administration in 2006242

b) Burden Reduction Reversal Under the Obama Administration in 2009243

5.TRI and Its Relationship to Other Inventories/Programmes243

6.Summary244

Ⅱ.Current Legal Framework of the TRI245

1.Establishment, Definitions, and Covered Environmental Media245

a) Establishment and Access to Information245

b) Definitions for Particular Terms246

aa) 'Person' and 'Administrator'246

bb) 'Establishment', 'Facility' (Both Comprising 'Site') and 'Operator'247

cc) 'Toxic Chemical'248

dd) 'Release' and (Absence of) 'Diffuse Sources'248

ee) 'Off-Site Transfer' of 'Waste' (Comprising 'Hazardous Waste' and 'Waste Water')248

ff) 'Disposal' and 'Recovery'249

gg) 'Reporting Year'249

hh) Exclusive EPCRA/PPA Definitions: 'Environment','State' and 'Source Reduction'250

c) Content of the TRI251

d) Interim Result251

2.Informational Structure252

a) The Standard Setting252

b) Ease of Public Access and Website Links253

3.Acquisition of Information Through Reporting Requirements254

a) Reporting by the Owner/Operator254

b) Reporting to the Sister States257

c) Interim Result258

4.Assurance and Assessment of Information Quality258

a) Legal Deficits as Regards Information Quality Objectives258

b) Information Quality Improvement Through Environmental Self-Auditing?259

c) Interim Result262

5.Further Provisions263

a) Amendment Procedures263

b) Federal Regulations and Guidance Documents265

c) Report of the Government Accountability Office265

d) Information Collection from Sister States266

e) Raising Awareness and Public Participation for Enhancement of TRI267

f) Amendments to Other Federal Laws, Fiscal Budget and Entry into Force268

6.Interim Result268

Ⅲ.Delimitation of TSCA and TRI269

1.General Aim and Scope269

2.Acquisition of Information271

3.Access to Information272

a) Tasks of the EPA272

b) Electronic Public Access: The TSCA Inventory272

c) Access to Information Held by the EPA273

4.Interim Result273

Ⅳ.Interim Result274

B.Trade Secrets/Exemptions and Mandatory Environmental Information Disclosure275

Ⅰ.Trade Secret Under 42 USC 11042276

1.Polluter's Authority to Withhold Information276

2.Trade Secret Factors and Regulations277

3.Providing Information to the EPA and Availability to the Public277

4.Information on Adverse Effects, to Sister States, and to Congress278

Ⅱ.Differences to FOIA as Regards Environmental Information Disclosure279

1.EPCRA's Relationship to Freedom of Information Act of 1966279

2.Scope of 'Environmental Information'280

3.Disclosure Addressees: 'Federal Institutions'281

4.Publication on Request281

Ⅲ.Sister States' Refusal of a Request: No Provision Under EPCRA281

Ⅳ.No Sister States' Law Pre-Emption Under EPCRA: 42 USC 11041 (a)282

Ⅴ.Trade Secrets and Other Intellectual Property: 40 Code of Federal Regulations 350282

1.Legal Contours of Trade Secrets283

a) Link with the Sister States' Concept of Confidentiality286

b) Differences Between Non-Technological and Technological Trade Secrets286

c) Prerequisites for the Presence of the Matter of Fact287

aa) Use of Secret in a Trade or Business287

bb) Extent to Which the Secret is Known288

cc) Intra-Enterprise Maintenance of Secrecy289

dd) Effect on the Relative Competitive Position290

ee) Modification of the Trade Secrecy Concept for Toxics Releases292

d) Decision Competence of the EPA292

e) Absolute and Relative Protection of Confidentiality293

f) Interim Result294

2.Ownership of Trade Secrets and Other Intellectual Property294

a) The Fifth Amendment of the US Constitution: The Takings Clause294

aa) Introduction295

bb) Is There a 'Taking'?296

(1) Possessory Taking: Loretto296

(2) Total Regulatory Taking: Lucas297

(3) Investment-Backed Expectations Taking: Penn Central297

(4) Land-Use Restriction Standards: Nollan and Dolan298

cc) Is There 'Property'?299

dd) Is the 'Taking' for 'Public Use'?300

ee) Is 'Just Compensation' Paid?300

b) Are Trade Secrets Property or Not'?300

aa) The History of Proprietary Interests in Information301

(1) The Property Right Bundle301

(2) Intangibility and the Positive Externality Problem of Information301

(3) Information as Property in the Context of Intellectual Property302

bb) The Governmental 'Taking' of Environmental Data in Ruckelshaus v Monsanto Co303

(1) The Facts of the Case304

(2) Background of the Challenged Statute: The Three Phases of FIFRA305

(3) The Supreme Court's Assessment of the Property Interest306

c) Different Approaches Towards Trade Secrets: Selected Literary Reactions309

aa) Samuelson 1989: Information as Property Mischaracterises the State of the Law309

bb) Bone 1998: Trade Secrets Are Property; No Trade Secret Law is Needed311

cc) Chiappetta 1999: Property Status of Trade Secrets Is Far from Settled311

dd) Epstein 2004: Analogy to the Physical Taking Under the Takings Clause312

ee) Risch 2007: An Alternate Categorisation into Collateral and Substantive Property313

ff) Lemley 2008: Trade Secrets Are Intellectual Property314

d) Protection of Patents and Copyrights315

3.Positioning, Comment, and Interim Result317

Ⅵ.Other Sister States' Grounds for Refusal to Disclose under EPCRA319

1.Is There Whistle-Blower Protection Available Under EPCRA?319

a) Introduction319

b) Procedure for Complaint320

c) Proof of Retaliation321

d) Whistle-Blowers' Identity Protection321

2.Other Grounds to Refuse Reporting of Environmental Information322

3.Interim Result322

Ⅶ.Pre-Emption of the Sister States' Refusal to Disclose Due to Environmental/Health Protection323

1.Implausibility of Recognition of Federal Constitutional Protection of the Environment323

2.Possibility of Protecting the Environment Through Fundamental Law324

a) Introduction325

b) International and Other National Constitutional Protection of the Environment325

aa) Stockholm Declaration in 1972325

bb) Rio Declaration in 1992326

cc) Comparative Fundamental Law Approach for Protection of the Environment?326

c) Sister States' Constitutional Protection of the Environment328

aa) General Comments328

bb) Pennsylvania's Experience with Constitutional Environmental Protection328

(1) Limits: Government versus Private Party328

(2) Potentials: Private Party versus Government329

(3) Practical Concordance: Environmental Protection versus Takings Clause330

3.US Policy on the Environment: 42 USC 4321, 4331, 4332331

a) Introduction332

b) Maintaining Environmental Quality: 42 USC 4321, 4331 (a)333

aa) Preamble and Principle333

bb) Positioning and Comment334

c) Pursuit of Environmental Objectives: 42 USC 4331 (b) and (c)334

aa) Preserving, Protecting and Improving the Quality of the Environment334

bb) Protecting Human Health335

d) Duties to Take Account of: 42 USC 4332 (1) and (2) (G), (A) and (B)335

e) Legal Obligation and Integrating Aspects of 42 USC 4331, 4332336

4.Case Law Rejecting a Federal Constitutional Right to a Healthy Environment339

a) Environmental Defense Fund Inc v Corps of Engineers339

b) Tanner v Armco Steel Corp340

c) Stop H-3 Association v Dole341

5.Interpreting the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments as 'Right to a Healthy Environment'?342

a) The Doctrine of Substantive Due Process343

aa) Lochner v New York343

bb) Roe v Wade and Cruzan v Missouri Department of Health344

cc) Washington v Glucksberg345

b) Substantive Due Process in the Context of 'Right to a Healthy Environment'345

aa) First Part of the Test: 'History, Legal Traditions, and Practices' of the Nation346

bb) Second Part of the Test: 'Careful' Description of the Federal Constitutional Right346

6.Pre-Emption of Trade Secrets348

a) Different Outcome in Ruckelshaus Due to Constitutional Environmental Protection?349

b) Pre-Emption of Information on Discharges into Air and Water351

c) Pre-Emption of Information Provided to Health Professionals351

Ⅷ.Interim Result352

C.Role of the US Environmental Protection Agency and Enforcement Mechanisms354

Ⅰ.Environmental Protection Agency in a Nutshell354

1.Establishment355

2.Tasks and Organisation356

3.Legal Capacity and Assignment of Sovereign Regulatory Competence357

Ⅱ.TRI Violations and Penalty Enforcement358

1.Civil and Administrative Penalties for Violation of 42 USC 11023358

2.Review and Penalties with Respect to 42 USC 11042359

a) Petition for Review of Trade Secret Claims359

b) Civil, Administrative and Criminal Penalties for Trade Secret Violation361

3.Procedural Aspects of Penalty Enforcement362

4.EPA's Enforcement Policy and Trends363

Ⅲ.TRI Violations and Compliance Enforcement364

1.Citizen Suits365

a) Appraisal of Locus Standi in Citizen Suits for Environmental Matters366

aa) Description of the Problem: Lujan and the Treatment of Citizen Suits366

bb) Appraisal of the Supreme Court's Conclusions in Lujan367

cc) Impact of Lujan369

dd) Interim Result370

b) Contextual Interpretation of Civil Actions Under 42 USC 11046 (a) (1)370

aa) TRI Violations Enabling Citizen Suits370

bb) Wholly Past EPCRA Violations in Federal District Courts371

cc) Federal Appellate Courts Contradictions on Wholly Past EPCRA Violations372

dd) Supreme Court Judgment in Steel and Its Contextual Appraisal375

ee) Positioning, Comment, and Interim Result376

2.Compliance Enforcement for Health Professionals and State Suits380

3.Procedural Aspects of Compliance Enforcement380

Ⅳ.Interim Result381

D.Excursus: Requested Access to Information About Other Pollutants and Ancillary Information382

Ⅰ.The First Amendment as 'Public's Right-to-Know'?383

Ⅱ.Freedom of Information Act of 1966384

1.Influence of Administration and Judicial Interpretation385

2.The Latest Amendments of 2007386

Ⅲ.Judgments of the US Federal Courts on the Rights of Access to Information388

1.Contours of Access to Information of Federal Agencies388

a) Scope of Agency Discretion to Disclose Information: Chrysler Corp v Brown388

b) Judicial Control in Camera and the Vaughn Index: Vaughn v Rosen390

2.Contours of Exemptions for Information Disclosure391

a) National Security and Internal Government Deliberations: EPA v Mink391

b) Law Enforcement Records: Frankel v Securities and Exchange Commission393

c) Trade Secret and Confidentiality: Public Citizen Health Research Group v FDA395

d) Personal Privacy: The Balancing Approach in Department of the Air Force v Rose397

e) Well Data: Black Hills Alliance v United States Forest Service399

f) Separable Portion of a Record: EPA v Mink400

3.Remaining Deficits in Substantive and Procedural Law: Two Case Law Samples400

a) Substantive Law: New York Public Interest Research Group v EPA400

b) Procedural Law: Natural Resources Defense Council v US Department of Defense402

4.Liability for Breach of Confidentiality: Chrysler Corp v Brown403

Ⅳ.Interim Result404

E.Conclusion of the Chapter405

5 Dissemination and Utilisation of Environmental Information409

A.Systemic Reshape Towards Mandatory Environmental Information Strategies409

Ⅰ.Information Economics of Mandatory Environmental Information Strategies410

1.Tackling Market Failure Due to Information Deficits: Enabling Intelligent Choices411

2.Reducing Transaction Costs for Information Collection and Dissemination413

Ⅱ.Overcoming the Environmental Information Capacity Shortage414

B.Drivers for Pollutant Release Reduction415

Ⅰ.Regulatory Monitoring and (Threat of) Legislative Adjustments416

1.At Above-State Level416

2.Floor at Federal/EU-Level Allows for Local Regulatory Adjustments417

Ⅱ.Voluntary Change in the Behaviour of the Public Exclusive of Its Capacity as Polluter417

1.Community Actions as 'Informal Regulation'418

2.Economic Markets419

a) Capital Markets419

b) Labour Markets420

c) Product Markets421

d) Reputation Expenses and Brand Value422

3.Judicial System424

a) Tort Law Actions and Oversight Enforcement Actions against Competent Authorities424

b) Direct and Indirect Citizen Enforcement Actions Against Polluter424

Ⅲ.Voluntary Change in the Behaviour of the Polluter Exclusive of Its Capacity as Public426

Ⅳ.Amendments or Reinterpretations of Constitutional Principles428

C.Limitations of Mandatory Environmental Information Strategies and Instrument Assessment428

Ⅰ.Two General Statements429

1.The Narrow Scope and Potentially Misleading Volumes of E-PRTR and TRI429

2.The Default of Unequal Results430

Ⅱ.Concrete Instrument Assessment of E-PRTR and TRI431

1.Effectiveness431

2.Legal Conformity432

3.Enforcement Feasibility433

4.Cost-Effectiveness434

5.Political Enforceability435

6.Innovation Potential436

7.Further Environmental-Specific Strategic Requirements437

D.Conclusion of the Chapter438

6 Summary441

A.Preliminaries441

B.Development of Pollution Reduction Instruments442

C.Pollutant Release Inventories: E-PRTR and TRI443

Ⅰ.Categorising Environmental Information Disclosure in the EU444

Ⅱ.Categorising Environmental Information Disclosure in the US445

Ⅲ.Common Deficits of E-PRTR and TRI446

Ⅳ.Role Model Solutions for the Opposite Programme448

Ⅴ.Requester-Driven Access to Environmental Information448

D.Dissemination and Utilisation of Environmental Information449

E.Outlook449

Bibliography451

Table of Cases471

Legislation ＆ Documents477