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PART A. INTRODUCTION3

1. WHAT IS TRANSNATIONAL CRIME?3

2. WHAT IS TRANSNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW?13

PART B. CRIMES27

3. PIRACY AND MARITIME SAFETY OFFENCES27

4. SLAVE TRADING, HUMAN TRAFFICKING, AND MIGRANT SMUGGLING36

5. DRUG TRAFFICKING50

6. TERRORISM62

7. TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME75

8. CORRUPTION88

9. MONEY LAUNDERING100

10. EMERGING TRANSNATIONAL CRIMES112

11. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TRANSNATIONAL CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS125

PART C. ENFORCEMENT135

12. JURISDICTION OVER TRANSNATIONAL CRIME135

13. INTERNATIONAL LAW ENFORCEMENT COOPERATION159

14. LAW ENFORCEMENT COOPERATION ON THE HIGH SEAS176

15. LAW ENFORCEMENT COOPERATION THROUGH ANTI-MONEY LAUNDERING AND COUNTERING THE FINANCING OF TERRORISM186

16. LEGAL ASSISTANCE197

17. EXTRADITION OF TRANSNATIONAL CRIMINALS214

18. ASSET RECOVERY235

19. TRENDS IN TRANSNATIONAL CRIMINAL PROCEDURE248

PART D. INSTITUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION,AND COMPLIANCE255

20. INSTITUTIONS255

21. IMPLEMENTATION AND COMPLIANCE261

PART E. CONCLUSION275

22. TRANSNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW: SOME REFLECTIONS275

Index279

PART A. INTRODUCTION3

1. WHAT IS TRANSNATIONAL CRIME?3

1.1 Introduction3

1.2 The Nature of Transnational Crime3

1.2.1 The meaning of 'transnational crime'3

1.2.2 Characteristics and causes of transnational crime4

1.2.3 Harms caused by transnational crime7

1.3 Assessing and responding to transnational crime8

1.3.1 Global cooperation: an unavoidable response to a global threat?8

1.3.2 The scale of transnational crime9

1.3.3 Threat identification and pathways to the development of a policy response9

1.3.4 The nature of the policy-making process11

2. WHAT IS TRANSNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW?13

2.1 The transnationality of crime and the transnationalization of criminal law13

2.2 The horizontal and vertical nature of transnational criminal law13

2.2.1 The role of the suppression conventions13

2.2.2 Transnational crimes and penalties14

2.2.3 Provisions for procedural cooperation16

2.2.4 The subjects of transnational criminal law16

2.3 The moral and political roots of transnational criminal law17

2.4 The distinction from international criminal law stricto sensu18

2.5 The systems aims and values20

2.5.1 Effective suppression20

2.5.2 Preservation of sovereignty20

2.5.3 Legality, legitimacy, and transparency20

2.5.4 Protection of human rights?21

2.6 Conclusion22

PART B. CRIMES27

3. PIRACY AND MARITIME SAFETY OFFENCES27

3.1 Introduction27

3.2 The nature of piracy27

3.3 Piracy: international or transnational crime?28

3.4 The definition of the crime of piracy in custom and early state practice29

3.5 Codification in the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea29

3.6 The elements of the crime of piracy30

3.6.1 Violence, detention, or depredation30

3.6.2 The limitation to acts for private ends30

3.6.3 The 'two ship' requirement31

3.6.4 The limitation to the high seas31

3.6.5 The key weakness of the UNCLOS definition32

3.7 The maritime safety offences33

3.8 Punishment of piracy and SUA offences34

3.9 Problems with the substantive law exposed by the situation off Somalia35

3.10 Conclusion35

4. SLAVE TRADING, HUMAN TRAFFICKING, AND MIGRANT SMUGGLING36

4.1 Introduction36

4.2 Slave trading36

4.2.1 Enslavement and slave trading36

4.2.2 Suppression under international law36

4.3 Forced labour and debt bondage38

4.4 'White' slavery39

4.5 Human trafficking39

4.5.1 The nature of human trafficking39

4.5.2 Criminalization of human trafficking under the Human Trafficking Protocol40

4.5.3 Protection of victims43

4.5.4 Regional conventions44

4.5.5 Pressure to implement45

4.6 People smuggling46

4.6.1 Background to the People Smuggling Protocol46

4.6.2 People smugglers' crimes and punishments47

4.6.3 The distinction between trafficked and smuggled persons48

4.6.4 The protection of migrants' human rights48

4.7 Conclusion49

5. DRUG TRAFFICKING50

5.1 Introduction50

5.2 Drugs and harm50

5.2.1 Illicit use and harm50

5.2.2 Illicit supply and harm50

5.2.3 Drug prohibition and harm51

5.3 The institutionalization of drug prohibition through international law51

5.3.1 Origins51

5.3.2 Commercial regulation of medicinal drugs51

5.3.3 Penal measures52

5.3.4 The relationship between licit and illicit supply52

5.3.5 Drug classification53

5.4 Supply reduction in the drug conventions53

5.4.1 Suppressing the chain of supply53

5.4.2 Production and refinement54

5.4.3 Transportation54

5.4.4 Distribution55

5.4.5 Possession and purchase for supply55

5.4.6 Support and organization of supply55

5.4.7 Punishment for supply offences56

5.5 Demand reduction provisions in the drug conventions58

5.5.1 Under the 1961 Convention58

5.5.2 Under the 1988 Convention58

5.6 Treatment and harm reduction59

5.7 The enforcement of the international drug control system60

5.8 Conclusion61

6. TERRORISM62

6.1 Introduction62

6.2 The nature and concept of terrorism62

6.3 Aviation offences64

6.4 Crimes against internationally protected persons65

6.5 Nuclear terrorism65

6.6 Hostage-taking66

6.7 Maritime safety67

6.8 Terrorist bombings67

6.9 Terrorist financing68

6.10 Suppressing terrorism through the UN Security Council69

6.11 A comprehensive counter-terrorism convention?71

6.12 Terrorism and human rights71

6.13 Terrorism as a core international crime?72

6.14 Conclusion73

7. TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME75

7.1 Introduction75

7.2 The nature of transnational organized crime75

7.2.1 What is transnational organized crime?75

7.2.2 The threat of transnational organized crime76

7.3 The development of the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC)77

7.3.1 Forerunner legislation77

7.3.2 The development of the UNTOC78

7.3.3 The failure to define organized crime79

7.4 The UNTOC offences79

7.4.1 Criminalization of participation in an organized criminal group79

7.4.2 Money laundering82

7.4.3 Corruption83

7.4.4 Obstruction of justice83

7.4.5 Penalties for UNTOC offences83

7.5 The UNTOC's conditions for international cooperation83

7.5.1 Two general conditions: transnationality and involvement of an organized criminal group83

7.5.2 Conditions for the application of the UNTOC to offences in the UNTOC Protocols85

7.5.3 Conditions for the residual application of the UNTOC to other 'serious crimes'85

7.6 Criminal responsibility of legal persons86

7.7 Conclusion86

8. CORRUPTION88

8.1 Introduction88

8.2 The nature of corruption88

8.3 Forerunner legislation89

8.4 The Inter-American Convention against Corruption90

8.5 The OECD Anti-Bribery Convention91

8.6 Other regional anti-corruption instruments93

8.7 The UN Convention against Corruption94

8.7.1 The development of the Convention94

8.7.2 Crimes94

8.7.3 Punishment97

8.8 The effectiveness of the anti-corruption conventions98

8.9 Conclusion99

9. MONEY LAUNDERING100

9.1 Introduction100

9.2 The nature of money laundering100

9.3 The domestic roots of the money laundering offence102

9.4 The money laundering offence103

9.4.1 The ancillary nature of money laundering103

9.4.2 The 'internal' elements of money laundering106

9.5 Criminal liability for legal persons109

9.6 The punishment of money laundering109

9.7 Enforcing implementation110

9.8 Conclusion110

10. EMERGING TRANSNATIONAL CRIMES112

10.1 Introduction112

10.2 Firearms trafficking112

10.2.1 Background112

10.2.2 Crimes113

10.2.3 Shoring up the Firearms Protocol113

10.3 Illicit traffic in cultural property113

10.3.1 Background113

10.3.2 The 1954 Hague Convention114

10.3.3 The 1970 UNESCO Convention114

10.3.4 The 1985 European Convention115

10.3.5 The UNIDROIT Convention115

10.3.6 Conclusion115

10.4 Cybercrime115

10.4.1 Background115

10.4.2 The Council of Europe Cybercrime Convention116

10.4.3 A UN Cybercrime Convention?118

10.5 Environmental crimes118

10.5.1 Background118

10.5.2 Illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU) fishing119

10.5.3 Illegal trading in endangered species120

10.5.4 Illegal logging and timber trafficking120

10.5.5 Trans-boundary pollution121

10.5.6 Future developments in regard to environmental crimes121

10.6 Other emerging transnational crimes122

10.6.1 Offences against state interests122

10.6.2 Offences against property interests122

10.6.3 Offences against children123

10.6.4 New forms of trafficking123

11. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TRANSNATIONAL CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS125

11.1 Crimes125

11.1.1 Introduction125

11.1.2 Unlawfulness126

11.1.3 Material elements126

11.1.4 Mental elements127

11.1.5 Participation127

11.1.6 Inchoate offences127

11.1.7 Liability of legal persons128

11.1.8 Defences128

11.1.9 A general part of transnational criminal law?129

11.2 The limited impact of international law on domestic penalties130

PART C. ENFORCEMENT135

12. JURISDICTION OVER TRANSNATIONAL CRIME135

12.1 Introduction135

12.2 Limitations on jurisdiction over transnational crime135

12.3 Extensions of extraterritorial jurisdiction recognized under the suppression conventions137

12.4 Territoriality138

12.4.1 Strict territoriality138

12.4.2 Quasi-territoriality139

12.4.3 Subjective and objective territoriality, ubiquity140

12.4.4 Effects141

12.5 Personality142

12.5.1 Nationality142

12.5.2 Passive personality144

12.5.3 Protective145

12.6 Universality147

12.6.1 The duty to extradite or prosecute/subsidiary universality147

12.6.2 The questionable effectiveness of subsidiary universality149

12.6.3 Absolute universality over transnational crime?150

12.7 Concurrent jurisdiction152

12.8 Immunity from jurisdiction over transnational crime153

12.8.1 Introduction153

12.8.2 Sovereign immunity154

12.8.3 Diplomatic immunity155

12.8.4 Immunity of officials from intergovernmental organizations156

12.8.5 Immunity of officials under their own national law156

12.9 Conclusion157

13. INTERNATIONAL LAW ENFORCEMENT COOPERATION159

13.1 Introduction159

13.1.1 Enforcing an established jurisdiction159

13.1.2 Territorial law enforcement against transnational crime159

13.1.3 Law enforcement against extraterritorial crime160

13.1.4 The nature of police-to-police cooperation161

13.2 Information storage and exchange161

13.2.1 Introduction161

13.2.2 Provisions in the suppression conventions for information exchange162

13.2.3 Information exchange in practice163

13.3 Operational cooperation165

13.3.1 Introduction165

13.3.2 Liaison165

13.3.3 Joint investigations166

13.3.4 Hot pursuit168

13.3.5 Special investigative techniques168

13.3.6 Procedures that enhance or frustrate the suppression of transnational crime171

13.3.7 Human rights171

13.4 Law enforcement training172

13.5 The role of international law enforcement organizations173

13.6 Conclusion174

14. LAW ENFORCEMENT COOPERATION ON THE HIGH SEAS176

14.1 Introduction176

14.2 Jurisdiction over own vessels176

14.3 Jurisdiction over stateless vessels177

14.4 Jurisdiction over foreign vessels177

14.4.1 Hot pursuit177

14.4.2 Permission to enforce jurisdiction178

14.4.3 Interdiction of foreign vessels engaged in drug trafficking178

14.4.4 Interdiction of foreign slave traders and migrant smugglers179

14.4.5 Interdiction of foreign pirates180

14.4.6 Interdiction of foreign fishing vessels181

14.4.7 Interdiction of foreign vessels carrying weapons of mass destruction182

14.5 Interdiction of vessels that seek refuge in a foreign states territorial waters183

14.6 Practical problems184

14.7 Human rights implications184

14.8 Conclusion185

15. LAW ENFORCEMENT COOPERATION THROUGH ANTI-MONEY LAUNDERING AND COUNTERING THE FINANCING OF TERRORISM186

15.1 Introduction186

15.2 Obstacles to policing money laundering187

15.3 The development of the AML regime187

15.3.1 Forerunner legislation187

15.3.2 International steps188

15.3.3 National regulatory measures191

15.4 The removal of bank secrecy laws192

15.5 Financial intelligence units193

15.6 Adaptation of the AML regime to counter-terrorist financing194

15.7 Conclusion195

16. LEGAL ASSISTANCE197

16.1 Introduction197

16.2 The nature and development of legal assistance197

16.2.1 Nature197

16.2.2 Letters rogatory197

16.2.3 Mutual legal assistance198

16.3 The scope of the legal assistance provisions in the suppression conventions199

16.3.1 The general duty to provide mutual legal assistance199

16.3.2 The limitation of legal assistance to criminal proceedings200

16.3.3 Types of legal assistance available201

16.4 The conditions for and exceptions to legal assistance203

16.4.1 Introduction203

16.4.2 Conditions203

16.4.3 Exceptions205

16.4.4 Conclusion206

16.5 Procedure for legal assistance207

16.5.1 Introduction207

16.5.2 Transmitting requests207

16.5.3 Execution of requests208

16.6 The rights of individuals to legal assistance210

16.7 Alternative methods of acquiring evidence abroad210

16.8 Conclusion212

17. EXTRADITION OF TRANSNATIONAL CRIMINALS214

17.1 Introduction214

17.2 The legal basis for extradition215

17.2.1 Extradition treaties, schemes, and national laws215

17.2.2 Extradition in the suppression conventions216

17.3 The conditions for and exceptions to extradition217

17.3.1 Conditions, exceptions, and the rule of non-inquiry217

17.3.2 Double criminality218

17.3.3 Extraditable offence220

17.3.4 Sufficiency of evidence221

17.3.5 Specialty222

17.3.6 Political offence exception223

17.3.7 Non-discrimination224

17.3.8 Nationality exception224

17.3.9 Military offence exception226

17.3.10 Fiscal offence exception226

17.3.11 Nemo bis in idem226

17.3.12 Procedural and practical obstacles227

17.3.13 Penalty exceptions227

17.4 Human rights in extradition228

17.4.1 The development of human rights bars228

17.4.2 Rights and prohibitions relevant in extradition229

17.5 Extradition procedure230

17.6 The future of extradition: surrender under the European Arrest Warrant?230

17.7 Alternatives to extradition232

17.8 Conclusion234

18. ASSET RECOVERY235

18.1 Introduction235

18.2 The international development of asset recovery235

18.3 Interim measures: identification, tracing, freezing, and seizing236

18.4 Conviction-based confiscation238

18.5 Non-conviction-based forfeiture240

18.6 International cooperation243

18.7 Dispersal of recovered assets245

18.8 Legitimacy and effectiveness247

19. TRENDS IN TRANSNATIONAL CRIMINAL PROCEDURE248

19.1 Introduction248

19.2 Jurisdiction248

19.3 Reliance of the suppression conventions on the system for international cooperation in criminal matters249

19.4 Pre-trial law enforcement assistance249

19.5 Legal assistance for trial purposes250

19.6 Extradition251

19.7 Post trial: asset recovery251

19.8 Conclusion252

PART D. INSTITUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION, AND COMPLIANCE255

20. INSTITUTIONS255

20.1 Introduction255

20.2 UN criminal justice institutions255

20.2.1 Introduction255

20.2.2 Law-making255

20.2.3 Policy-making: the ECOSOC's functional commissions256

20.2.4 Oversight: the International Narcotics Control Board and conferences of parties256

20.2.5 Administration: the UN Office on Drugs and Crime257

20.3 Other intergovernmental institutions and organizations258

20.4 Civil society259

20.5 Conclusion259

21. IMPLEMENTATION AND COMPLIANCE261

21.1 Introduction261

21.2 Implementation261

21.3 Compliance262

21.4 Review mechanisms264

21.5 The carrot: technical assistance265

21.6 The sticks: enforcing implementation and compliance266

21.7 A transnational criminal court?269

21.8 Conclusion270

PART E. CONCLUSION275

22. TRANSNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW: SOME REFLECTIONS275

22.1 Incremental development275

22.2 Hard and soft law275

22.3 A horizontal system276

22.4 Selective interests277

22.5 Harmonization of domestic criminal laws277

22.6 Effective suppression278

22.7 Transnational criminal law not justice278

Index279