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1 Science, Society, and Criminological Research1

What Do We Have in Mind?1

Reasoning About the Social World2

Case Study: Exploring Youth VioLence2

Questions and Answers3

Everyday Errors in Reasoning4

How the Scientific Approach is Different7

Why We Do Criminological Research7

Social Criminological Research in Action8

Description: How PrevaLent Is Youth Violence?9

ExpLoration: How Do Schools Respond to Gun VioLence?11

ExpLanation: What Factors Are Related to Youth DeLinquency and Violence?12

EvaLuation: Do VioLence Prevention Programs in SchooLs Work?13

Strengths and Limitations of Social Research14

Types of Research Methods15

Quantitative and QuaLitative Methods16

Social Research Goals18

Measurement Validity19

GeneratizabiLity19

Causal Validity20

Authenticity20

Conclusion20

Key Terms21

Highlights21

Exercises22

Discussing Research22

Finding Research on the Web22

Critiquing Research23

Making Research EthicaL23

DeveLoping a Research Proposal23

Performing Data Analysis in SPSS or Excel24

2 The Process and Problems of Criminological Research25

What Do We Have in Mind?25

Criminological Research Questions26

Identifying Criminological Research Questions27

Refining Criminological Research Questions27

Evaluating Criminological Research Questions28

The Rote of Criminological Theory29

Social Research Strategies32

The Research Circle32

Domestic Violence and the Research Circle36

Phase 1: Deductive Research36

Phase 2: Deductive Research38

Phase 3: Inductive Research38

Phase 4: Deductive Research40

Adding Exploration to the Mix40

Guidelines for Criminologists41

Scientific Guidelines41

Conclusion44

Key Terms44

Highlights44

Exercises45

Discussing Research45

Finding Research on the Web45

Critiquing Research46

Making Research Ethical46

Developing a Research Proposal47

Performing Data Analysis in SPSS or Excel47

3 Research Ethics and Philosophies49

What Do We Have in Mind?49

Historical Background52

Ethical Principles55

Achieving Valid Results55

Honesty and Openness57

Protecting Research Participants57

The Uses of Research67

Social Research Philosophies68

Positivism and Postpositivism68

Interpretivism and Constructivism71

An Integrated Philosophy72

Conctusion73

Key Terms74

Highlights74

Exercises75

Discussing Research75

Finding Research on the Web75

Critiquing Research76

Making Research Ethical76

DeveLoping a Research Proposal76

Performing Data AnaLysis in SPSS or Excel77

4 Conceptualization and Measurement79

What Do We Have in Mind?79

Concepts80

Defining Youth Gangs80

Concepts and Variables81

How WiLL We Know When We've Found It?82

Using AvaiLabLe Data83

Constructing Questions84

Making Observations85

Collecting Unobtrusive Measures85

Combining Measurement Operations86

How Much Information Do We ReaLLy Have?86

Nominal Level of Measurement88

Ordinal Level of Measurement88

Interval Level of Measurement90

Ratio Level of Measurement90

Comparison of LeveLs of Measurement91

Did We Measure What We Wanted to Measure?92

Measurement VaLidity93

Reliability95

Can We Achieve Both ReliabiLity and Validity?97

Conctusion98

Key Terms99

Hightights99

Exercises100

Discussing Research100

Finding Research on the Web100

Critiquing Research101

Making Research Ethical101

Developing a Research Proposal101

Performing Data Analysis in SPSS or Excel102

5 Sampling103

What Do We Have in Mind?103

Sample Planning103

Define SampLe Components and the Population104

Evaluate Generalizability106

Assess Population Diversity108

Consider a Census110

SampLing Methods111

Probability Sampling Methods112

Nonprobability SampLing Methods118

Lessons About Sample Quality123

Units of Analysis and Errors in Causal Reasoning123

Individual and Group Units of Analysis123

The EcologicaL Fallacy and Reductionism124

Conclusion125

Key Terms126

Highlights126

Exercises127

Discussing Research127

Finding Research on the Web128

Critiquing Research128

Making Research Ethical128

Developing a Research Proposal129

Performing Data Analysis in SPSS or Excel129

6 Causation and Research Design131

What Do We Mean by Causation?131

Causal Explanation132

Association133

Time Order134

Nonspuriousness134

Mechanism134

Context135

Why Experiment?136

An Experiment in Action: Prison Classification and Inmate Behavior138

Field Experiments: Determining the Effect of Incarceration on Employment139

What If a True Experiment Isn't Possible?141

NonequivaLent Control Group Designs142

Case Study: The Effectiveness of Drug Courts142

Before-and-After Designs143

Case Study: The Effects of the Youth Criminal Justice Act144

Ex Post Facto Control Group Designs146

Case Study: Does an Arrest Increase Delinquency?146

What Are the Threats to Internal Validity and Generatizabitity in Experiments?146

Causal (Internal) VaLidity147

Generatizability150

Interaction of Testing and Treatment151

The Element of Time in Research152

Repeated Cross-Sectional Designs153

Fixed-Sample Panel Designs154

Event-Based Designs155

How Do Experimenters Protect Their Subjects?156

Deception156

Selective Distribution of Benefits156

Conclusion157

Key Terms158

Highlights158

Exercises159

Discussing Research159

Finding Research on the Web159

Critiquing Research160

Making Research Ethical160

Developing a Research Proposal161

Performing Data Analysis in SPSS or ExceL161

7 Survey Research163

Survey Research in Action: Measuring Victimization163

What Is a Survey?164

Attractive Features of Survey Research164

The Omnibus Survey165

Questionnaire Development and Assessment165

Maintain Focus166

Build on Existing Instruments166

Writing Questions167

Constructing Clear and Meaningful Questions169

Additional Guidelines for Fixed-Response Questions171

Combining Questions into an Index174

Demographic Questions175

Don't Forget to Pretest!178

Organization Matters178

Survey Designs180

Mailed Self-Administered Surveys181

Group-Administered Surveys181

Surveys by Telephone182

In-Person Interviews183

Electronic Surveys184

Mixed-Mode Surveys186

A Comparison of Survey Designs186

Ethical Issues in Survey Research188

Protection of Respondents188

Confidentiality188

Conclusion189

Key Terms190

Highlights190

Exercises191

Discussing Research191

Finding Research on the Web191

Critiquing Research192

Making Research Ethical192

Developing a Research Proposal192

Performing Data Analysis in SPSS or Excel193

8 Qualitative Methods and Data Analysis195

What Do We Mean by Qualitative Methods?195

Origins of Qualitative Research197

Case Study: Life in the Gang197

Participant Observation199

Choosing a Role199

Entering the Field203

Developing and Maintaining Relationships203

Sampling People and Events204

Taking Notes206

Managing the Personal Dimensions206

Systematic Observation207

Case Study: Systematic Observation in Chicago Neighborhoods208

Intensive Interviewing210

Establishing and Maintaining a Partnership212

Asking Questions and Recording Answers212

Focus Groups213

Case Study: Combining Focus Groups With Official Records When Examining Police Searches214

Analyzing Qualitative Data215

Qualitative Data Analysis as an Art216

Qualitative Compared With Quantitative Data Analysis216

Techniques of Qualitative Data Analysis216

Documentation217

Making Sense of It: Conceptualization, Coding, and Categorizing217

Examining Relationships and Displaying Data218

Authenticating Conclusions218

Reflexivity220

Alternatives in Qualitative Data Analysis220

Ethnography221

Grounded Theory222

Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis223

Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research224

Voluntary Participation224

Subject Well-Being224

Identity Disclosure225

Confidentiality225

Appropriate Boundaries226

Researcher Safety226

Conclusion227

Notes228

Key Terms228

Highlights228

Exercises229

Discussing Research229

Finding Research on the Web230

Critiquing Research230

Making Research Ethical231

Developing a Research Proposal231

Performing Data Analysis in SPSS or Excel232

9 Analyzing Content: Crime Mapping and Historical, Secondary, and Content Analysis233

What Is Secondary Data?233

Case Study: Gender and Offending234

Historical Events Research234

Case Study: Race, Rape, and Capital Punishment236

Comparative Methods236

Case Study: Homicide Across Nations237

Content Analysis238

Identifying a Population of Documents or Other Textual Sources239

Case Study: Crime and TV240

Crime Mapping241

Case Study: Mapping Crime in Cities242

Case Study: Gang Homicides in St. Louis, Missouri242

Case Study: Using Google Earth to Track Sexual Offending Recidivism245

Combining Research Designs246

Comparing Research Designs246

Triangulating Research Designs247

Case Study: Triangulation In Action--School Security and Discipline247

Ethical Issues When Analyzing Available Data and Content248

Conclusion249

Key Terms250

Highlights250

Exercises250

Discussing Research250

Finding Research on the Web251

Critiquing Research251

Making Research Ethical252

Developing a Research Proposal252

Performing Data Analysis in SPSS or Excel253

10 Evaluation and Policy Analysis255

Why Do We Need Evaluation?255

A Brief History of Evaluation Research256

Evaluation Basics258

Evaluation Alternatives260

Do We Need the Program?261

Can the Program Be Evaluated?261

Is the Program Working as Planned?261

Case Study: Evaluating the D.A.R.E. Program262

Did the Program Work?263

Case Study: The Risk Skills Training Program (RSTP) Compared to D.A.R.E.264

Is the Program Worth It?265

Case Study: Cost-Benefit AnaLysis of Therapeutic Communities267

Design Decisions267

BLack Box EvaLuation or Program Theory267

Researcher or Stakeholder Orientation268

Evaluation in Action269

Case Study: Problem-Oriented Policing in VioLent Crime Areas269

Strengths of Randomized Experimental Designs in Impact Evaluations271

When Experiments Are Not Feasible272

Case Study: Boot Camps272

Qualitative and Quantitative Methods273

Increasing Demand for Evidence-Based Policy274

Meta-Analyses276

Case Study: The Effectiveness of Anti-Bullying Programs277

Ethics in Evaluation277

Conclusion278

Key Terms278

Highlights279

Exercises279

Discussing Research279

Finding Research on the Web280

Critiquing Research280

Making Research Ethical280

DeveLoping a Research Proposal281

Performing Data AnaLysis in SPSS or Excel281

11 Quantitative Data Analysis283

Why We Need Statistics283

Case Study: The Causes of Delinquency284

Preparing Data for Analysis284

Displaying Univariate Distributions286

Graphs287

Frequency Distributions288

Ungrouped Data289

Grouped Data290

Summarizing Univariate Distributions294

Measures of Central Tendency295

Measures of Variation301

Crosstabulating Variables304

Analyzing Data Ethically: How Not to lie About Relationships308

Conclusion308

Key Terms309

Highlights309

Exercises309

Discussing Research309

Finding Research on the Web310

Critiquing Research310

Making Research Ethical310

Developing a Research Proposal311

Performing Data AnaLysis in SPSS or Excel311

12 Reporting Research Results313

Research Report Goals313

Advance Scientific Knowledge314

Shape Social Policy314

Organize Social Action—Participatory Action Research315

Case Study: Seeking Higher Education for Inmates315

Types of Research Reports316

Student Papers and Theses317

Journal ArticLes317

Applied Reports319

Curbing the Frustrations of Writing320

Ethics and Reporting321

Plagiarism322

Conclusion323

Key Terms323

Highlights323

Exercises324

Discussing Research324

Finding Research on the Web324

Critiquing Research325

Making Research Ethical325

Developing a Research Proposal325

Performing Data Analysis in SPSS or Excel326

Glossary327

References347

Index363