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Chapter One Introduction1

Chapter Two Background11

Ⅰ Introduction11

Ⅱ Background to Article 25 of the Rome Statute11

A Different Models of Individual Criminal Responsibility12

B Codification of Individual Criminal Responsibility under International Law14

Ⅲ Introduction to Article 25 of the Rome Statute20

A The Text of Article 2520

B Modes of Liability under Article 25(3)22

C Element Analysis Approach26

D Identifying the Elements of Accessorial Modes of Liability30

Ⅳ Methodology31

A Methodology for Developing the Proposed Elements31

1 Interpretation of the Language of the Rome Statute31

2 Analysis of the Potential for, and the Appropriateness of, Adopting Elements Already Developed by Other Courts and Tribunals33

3 Analysis of the Potential for, and the Appropriateness of, Drawing on General Principles of Domestic Criminal Law36

(a) Common Law38

(b) Civil Law40

Ⅴ Conclusion41

Chapter Three Accessorial Act43

Ⅰ Introduction43

Ⅱ Ordering43

A Introduction43

B Conduct Element44

1 What Constitutes an 'Order'44

2 What Constitutes the Giving of an Order47

3 Conclusion52

C Circumstance Elements53

1 Features of the Accused53

1 Nature of the Act Ordered59

Ⅲ Soliciting or Inducing60

A Introduction60

B Conduct Element62

1 What Specific Conduct Might Constitute Soliciting or Inducing62

2 Whether the Solicitation or Inducement Must Be Direct and Public66

3 Conclusion70

C Circumstance Elements70

1 Features of the Accused70

2 Nature of the Act Solicited/Induced71

Ⅳ Aiding and Abetting72

A Introduction72

B Conduct Element72

1 What Specific Conduct Might Constitute Aiding and Abetting72

2 Tangible and Intangible Support74

3 Providing the Means80

4 Proximity to the Act of Commission82

5 Conclusion89

Ⅴ Conclusion90

Chapter Four Accessorial Object93

Ⅰ Introduction93

Ⅱ Introduction to Derivative Nature94

A What Does 'Derivative Nature' Mean?94

B The Impact of the Derivative Nature on Liability95

Ⅲ The Non-Derivative Approach98

A Introduction98

B The Consequences of this Approach98

C Is this Approach Open under the Rome Statute?99

Ⅳ Two Derivative Approaches101

A Introduction101

B The Accessorial Object under the Strict Derivative Approach102

C The Accessorial Object under the Partially Derivative Approach106

1 The Distinction between Justification and Excuse106

2 The Accessorial Object113

D Which Approach Is Open under the Rome Statute114

E Which Approach Is Preferable118

Ⅴ Conclusion119

Chapter Five Causation123

Ⅰ Causation and Accessorial Liability123

Ⅱ Jurisprudence of Previous International Courts and Tribunals126

A Aiding and Abetting126

B Ordering and Instigating128

C Conclusion130

Ⅲ Requirement of a Successful Contribution130

A Introduction130

B Domestic Law Requires a Successful Contribution130

C Metaphysical Objection to Causation in Cases of Accessorial Liability D Conclusion Ⅳ The Necessary Condition Test137

A Introduction137

B Underinclusiveness of the Test139

1 Concurrent Overdetermination Cases139

2 Pre-Emptive Overdetermination Cases141

C Conclusion143

Ⅴ The Substantial Effect Test143

A Introduction143

B Limited Support for the Test in Domestic Jurisdictions and Commentary144

C Vague,Circular and Subjective Nature of the Test144

D Conclusion146

Ⅵ Conclusion146

Chapter Six Mental Elements149

Ⅰ Introduction149

Ⅱ Introduction to the Concept of Intent151

A Gradations of Intent151

B Direct Intent (in the First Degree)153

C Oblique Intent,or Direct Intent in the Second Degree155

D Recklessness and Dolus Eventualis157

Ⅲ Introduction to Article 30160

A Intent and Knowledge160

B Element Analysis Approach161

C Definitions of 'Intent'163

1 'Means to'163

2 'Aware it will occur in the ordinary course of events'166

D Definitions of 'Knowledge'173

1 Awareness that a circumstance exists'173

(a) Wilful Blindness173

(b) Knowledge of Normative or Legal Circumstances174

2 Awareness that...a consequence will occur in the ordinary course of events'175

E Conclusion175

Ⅳ Exceptions to Article 30176

A Interpretation of 'Unless otherwise provided...'176

B Types of Exceptions to Article 30180

1 Less Stringent Mental Elements180

2 More Stringent Mental Elements181

3 Additional Mental Elements182

Ⅴ Conclusion184

Chapter Seven Proposed Mental Elements187

Ⅰ Introduction187

Ⅱ Conduct Elements188

Ⅲ Circumstance Elements189

Ⅳ Consequence Elements191

Ⅴ Additional Mental Element197

Ⅵ Conclusion204

Chapter Eight Conclusion205

Ⅰ Introduction205

Ⅱ Liability of the Generals for Soliciting/Inducing206

A Proposed Elements for Soliciting/Inducing206

B Element 1--Conduct Element207

C Element 2--Circumstance Element208

D Element 3--Consequence Element209

E Causation Requirement211

F Conclusion212

Ⅲ Liability of Archer for Ordering212

A Proposed Elements for Ordering212

B Element 1--Conduct Element213

C Element 2--Circumstance Element213

D Element 3--Circumstance Element214

E Element 4--Consequence Element215

F Causation Requirement215

G Conclusion216

Ⅳ Liability of Banks for Aiding and Abetting216

A Proposed Elements for Aiding and Abetting216

B Element 1--Conduct Element217

C Element 2--Consequence Element218

D Causation Requirement218

E Element 3--Additional Mental Element218

F Conclusion219

Ⅴ Conclusion219

Appendices222

Index231