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CONTENTS1

CHAPTER Ⅰ　THE SCIENCE OF EXPRESSION1

1.10．Something to Say and Way of Saying It1

1.11．All Grammatical Forms and Constructions are Ways of Expressing Notions2

1.20．Grammar as the Science of Expression3

1.30．National Differences in Notions and Their Expressions5

1.31．National Differences in Notions5

1.40．Formal and Notional Grouping of Grammatical Facts6

1.32．English Grammar Should Teach English Ways of Think－ing and Expression6

1.41．Outline of the Course8

1.42．Living Grammar10

CHAPTER Ⅱ　PARTS OF SPEECH AND CHANGE OF FUNCTION11

2.10．The Eight Parts of Speech or Word-Classes11

2.11．Definitions12

2.12．Grammatical Function14

2.13．Chinese and English Compared15

2.14．Sense of Function16

2.15．Sense of Thing17

2.16．Sense of Action and Quality18

2.17．Sense of Aspect and Manner20

2.18．Sense of Prepositional Force22

2.20．Change of Function23

2.21．Nouns Used as Adjectives24

2.22．Nouns Changed into Adjectives26

2.23．Nouns Used as Verbs27

2.30．Verbs Used as Nouns27

2.31．Verbs Changed into Nouns29

2.32．Pairs of Nouns and Verbs30

2.33．Verbs Used as Adjectives：Participles32

2.34．Spelling of Participles34

2.35 Verbs Changed into Adjectives35

2.40．Adjectives Changed into Nouns36

2.41．The Poor，the Dead,etc．37

2.42．Adjectives Changed into Adverbs：The Ending－ly38

2.43．Knowingly，Decidedly，etc40

2.50．Prepositions Used as Adjectives40

2.51．Adverbs and Prepositions Used as Nouns42

2.52．Adverbs，Prepositions and Conjunctions42

2.60．Some Interesting Compound-Words43

CHAPTER Ⅲ SENTENCE MOODS46

3.10．What is a Sentence？46

3.11．Importance of Finite Verb48

3.20．Sentence，Phrase and Clause：Subject，Predicate and Principal Verb49

3.21．Direct and Indirect Objects49

3.22．Sentence Structure：Modifiers and Conjunctions50

3.23．Phrase and Clause51

3.30．Sentence Moods52

3.31．Chinese and English Compared：Chinese Modal Particles53

3.40．Affirmation：I Do，I Am54

3.41．Can，Will，Have，Must，etc55

3.42．Affirmative Replies56

3.43．Qualified Assertion56

3.44．Emphatic Assertion57

3.45．English Reticence and Double Negatives59

3.46．Affirmation by a Retort Question60

3.50．Negation61

3.51．Aren't，Isn't，Mustn't，etc．62

3.52．No，Not a，Not Any，Nothing，etc．64

3.54．No in Negative Answers65

3.53．Few，a Few，Little，a Little65

3.55．Emphatic Negation66

3.56．“I Ain't Got Nothillg”67

3.57．Conditional Negation68

3.60．Interrogation69

3.61．Will You？Wont't You？70

3.62．The Tag-Question71

3.63．Tonal Interrogation and the Questioning Tone72

3.64．The Indirect Question and Noun Clauses73

3.71．Command，Request，Suggestion，etc．75

3.70．The Potential Moods75

3.72．Shall and Will77

3.73．Hope and Wish78

3.74．Permission，Prohibition，Obligation，etc．80

3.75．Conjecture and Possibility81

3.76．Pure Supposition：Would,Should,Could,Might83

3.77．The Subjunctive Clause85

3.80．Emotional Utterances86

3.81．Swear-Words88

4.10．Classes of Things90

CHAPTER Ⅳ PERSONS，THINGS AND THEIR GENDER90

4.20．Process and Result91

4.21．Process-Words Denoting Results92

4.30．Abstract and Contrete Nouns93

4.31．Abstract-Words with Concrete Meaning95

4.32．A Piece of Folly，a Fit of Anger，etc．96

4.40．Common and Proper Nouns97

4.41．Proper Nouns and Capital Letters98

4.51．Mass-Words99

4.50．Collectives and Mass-Words：Collectives or Group-Names99

4.60．Things，Persons and Personification：Things and Persons100

4.61．Who，Which and That101

4.62．Whose and Of Which102

4.63．Personification103

4.70．Sex and Gender105

4.71．Masculine，Feminine，Common and Neuter Genders106

4.72．Animals and Persons of Different Sex107

CHAPTER Ⅴ NUMBER AND QUANTITY109

5.10．The Notions of Number and Quantity109

5.11．Mass-Words：Grain of Sand,Bushel of Rice,etc．110

5.12．Abstract Nouns：Piece of Luck112

5.20．Singular and Plural：The Plural Endings -s and -es113

5.21．Boys，Ladies，Pianos，Potatoes115

5.22．Irregular Pluals：Fish，Dozen，Alumni116

5.23．Collectives：Government Have and Government Has118

5.24．Psychological Intent：Three Weeks Is Heaps of Time119

5.25．The Generic Singular120

5.26．Natural Plurals121

5.27．Differentiated Plurals123

5.28．Some Special Cases：Sons－in-law，the Miss Rogers，etc．124

5.30．Numerals：Numerals，Fractions and Multiples126

5.31．Indefinite Number129

5.40．Conflict of Number131

5.41．Number in Verbs133

CHAPTER Ⅵ WEIGHT，VALUE，SIZE，SHAPE AND POSITION139

6.10．National Differences in These Categories139

6.20．Expressions of Weight139

6.30．Expressions of Value140

6.40．Expressions of Size and Distance143

6.50．Expressions of Shape：English Shape－Blindness144

6.60．Expressions of Position146

6.61．Peculiar Use of Prepositions148

CHAPTER Ⅶ REPRESENTATION150

7.10．Representation150

7.20．Presonal Pronouns：Case and Person151

7.21．Mine，Thine，etc153

7.22．Influence of Modesty，Respect，Familiarity，etc154

7.23．Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns156

7.24．General Person：One,People，etc158

7.30．Conflict of Person and Case：Conflict of Person160

7.31．Conflict of Case：Who，Whom，Whoever,Whomever162

7.40．Thing－Pronouns165

7.41．Some，Any，None166

7.42．What167

7.43．One，Thing，Affair，Something，etc167

7.44．That169

7.45．It170

7.50．Metaphors：Metaphors and Figurative Expressions173

7.60．Indirect Statements：Direct and Indirect Statements177

7.61．Tense of Dependent Clauses179

7.70．Representation by Omission181

CHAPTER Ⅷ DETERMINATION186

8.10．Representation，Determination and Modification186

8.11．Classes of Pronouns187

8.20．Distinction：This，That，Same，Other188

8.30．Possessive Pronouns and Nouns190

8.40．Apposition：Apposition and Example192

8.50．Sequence：the Ordinals194

8.60．Alternation and Distribution：Either，Each，etc195

8.70．Definite and Indefinite：A，An and The197

8.71．Generalization：A Cat，The Cat，Cats199

8.72．Special Uses of A and The201

8.73．Omission of A and The203

8.80．Indetermination：Whatever，Whoever，etc207

CHAPTER Ⅸ MODIFICATION210

9.10．Modification：Its Importance210

9.11．Word-Classes and Word-Ranks212

9.20．Relationship between Modified and Modifier214

9.21．The Use and Omission of Hyphens217

9.22．Relationship between Modifiers220

9.23．Co-ordinate Modifiers220

9.24．Subordinate Modifiers223

9.25．Shifted Ranks226

9.26．Transformed Phrases as Modifiers230

9.27．Nouns and Verbs as Modifiers232

9.30．Phrase and Clause Modifiers235

9.31．The Infinitve Phrase as Modifier235

9.32．The Split Infinitive，etc．239

9.33．Need to，Dare to241

9.40．The Participial Phrase as Modifier243

9.41．Misconnected Participles246

9.42．The Absolute Participial Phrase247

9.50．The Prepositional Phrase249

9.51．Prepositions for Brevity250

9.52．Prepositions at End251

9.53．But，Than252

9.54．Some Special Uses of English Prepositons253

9.60．The Relative Clause255

9.61．That as a Defining Relative Pronoun256

9.62．Which as a Commentative Relative Pronoun257

9.63．Which Modifying Statements259

9.64．In Which，from Whom，etc259

9.65．Which...It，Which...Them，etc261

9.66．That...to，That...for，etc261

9.67．That Used for in Which，for Which，etc262

9.68．That Dropped262

9.691．As as a Relative Pronoun263

9.70．Relative Adverbs When，Where and Why264

9.692．But as a Relative Pronoun264

9.71．When Called,When Resting266

9.80．Phrase and Clause Modifiers Summarized267

9.81．Post－Nominal Position of Modifiers268

9.82．Economy in Phrase and Clause Modifiers269

9.83．The Nominal Phrase270

9.84．Joining of Phrases270

9.90．The Predicate Complements271

9.91．“I Made Him Go”273

13.60．Auxiliaries：Might，Could,Would,Should and Ought274

10.10．Degrees of Comparison：Their Relative Nature275

CHAPTER Ⅹ COMPARISON AND DEGREE275

10.11．The“Three Degrees of Comparison”276

10.12．More Better，Next Best，etc278

10.13．Superiority，Equality and Inferiority279

10.14．Implied Comparison280

10.15．Words That Cannot Be Compared281

10.16．Weakened Superlatives282

10.20．Comparison with a Standard284

10.30．Degree of Difference288

10.31．Indeterminate Degrees288

10.32．Limitation294

10.33．Cumulative Degrees296

10.40．Choice and Comparison297

10.50．Comparison and Case299

CHAPTER Ⅺ　ASPECTS OF ACTION302

11.01．The Study of the Verb302

11.02．What is an Aspect？303

11.03．The English Verbal Aspects305

11.10．Action and Condition305

11.11．Being and Doing308

11.20．Transitive and Intransitive Verbs309

11.21．Intransitive Verbs and Prepositions311

11.22．Intransitive Verbs Used Transitively315

11.30．Active and Passive：The Term“Voice”317

11.31．Formation of the Passive317

11.32．Use of the Passive319

11.33．Active and Passive Nouns320

11.34．Active and Passive Adjectives321

11.35．False Active322

11.40．Complete and Incomplete Action323

11.41．Present Perfect and Adverbs of Time324

11.42．Use of the Perfect325

11.43．Incompletion：Use of the Progressive330

11.44．Participles and the Conclusive Aspect331

11.50．Beginning，Continuation and End332

11.60．Durative and Punctual：Point of Time and Period of Time334

11.61．Punctual and Durative Verbs335

11.62．Duration in Prepositions336

11.70．Habitual Action337

11.80．Tentative Action339

11.90．Miscellaneous Minor Aspects：Causative，Reiterative，Reflexive and Reciprocal340

CHAPTER Ⅻ　SUBJECT AND OBJECT（TRANSITIVE ACTION）342

12.10．Subject and Doer342

12.11．Object and Party Affected343

12.12．Grammatical Subjects and Objects344

12.20．Kinds of Subject345

12.21．It as Subject345

12.22．There Is347

12.30．Transitive Action and Objects：Transitive Action348

12.31．Direct and Indirect Objects349

12.40．Passive Subjects：Passive Verbs with Objects350

12.41．Passive Intransitive Verbs351

12.50．Impersonal Subjects352

13.10．The Time Schene：Present，Past and Future355

CHAPTER ⅩⅢ TIME OF ACTION355

13.20．Present：What is Present？356

13.21．Habitual Action and Eternal Truths357

13.30．Future：Expression of Future358

13.31．Shall and Will358

13.32．Chinese“Chiang”and“Yao”360

13.33．May and Is to361

13.34．Present Used for Future362

13.41．Use of the Past363

13.40．Past：Past Actions are Facts363

13.42．Past Visualized：“Dramatic Present”365

13.43．Tense in Dependent Clauses366

13.50．Irregular Verbs366

13.61．Expression of the Past with Auxiliaries377

13.62．Declinable Substitutes for the Auxiliaries378

13.70．Conjunctions Expressing Time380

13.80．Adverbs of Time382

13.90．Time in Nouns383

14.11．Fact and Fancy385

CHAPTER ⅩⅣ FACT AND FANCY385

14.10．The Verbal Moods：Close Relation to Sentence Moods385

14.12．Subjective and Objective Moods386

14.20．The Subjunctive Mood：Shifting of Tense386

14.21．General Supposition：If He Should Have，If He Have388

14.22．Different Degrees of Supposition390

14.23．If I Was，If I Were392

14.30．The Potential Moods392

15.10．Conjunctions and Logical Relationships396

15.20．Simple，Compound and Complex Sentences396

CHAPTER ⅩⅤ RELATIONSHIPS396

15.30．Co－ordinate and Subordinate Clauses399

15.40．Logical Relationships401

15.41．Combination401

15.42．Opposition402

15.43．Selection and Substitution403

15.44．Exclusion and Inclusion404

15.45．Condition and Concession405

15.46．Cause and Effect406

15.47．Motive and Purpose407

15.48．Comparison and Conformity408

15.49．Time and Logical Relationships410

15.50．Interrogative Adverbs and Pronouns412

15.60．Punctuation：Logical and Phonetic Basis412

15.61．The Comma413

15.62．The Semi-Colon415

15.63．The Colon416

15.65．The Exclamation and Question Marks417

15.66．Inverted Commas417

15.64．The FullStop417

15.67．The Dash and the Dotted Line418

15.68．Parentheses and Brackets420

15.70．Loose and Periodic Sentences：Loose and Periodic Sen-tence Structure421

CHAPTER ⅩⅥ　ECONOMY OF EXPRESSION423

16.10．Ease and Economy423

16.20．Shifting of Function423

16.21．Change of Clauses into Phrases424

16.30．Ellipsis：Dropping of Auxiliary Words426

16.31．Dropping of Principal Words426

16.22．Change of Phrase Modfifiers into Word-Modifiers426

16.32．Ellipsis in Dependent Clauses427

16.33．And that428

16.40．Abbreviations and Contractions：Contractions428

16.41．Abbreviations429

16.42．Monosyllabism430

16.50．Mottoes432

16.60．Economy and Emotional Language432

16.70．Economy and Business432

SYNOPSIS OF FORMAL GRAMMAR434

INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND TERMS444