水回用：问题、技术与实践 英文 下PDF|Epub|txt|kindle电子书版本网盘下载

水回用：问题、技术与实践 英文 下PDF格式电子书版下载

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Part 1　Water Reuse:An Introduction1

1 Water Issues:Current Status and the Role of Water Reclamation and Reuse3

Working Terminology4

1-1 Definition of Terms6

1-2 Principles of Sustainable Water Resources Management6

The principle of sustainability7

Working definitions of sustainability7

Challenges for sustainability7

Criteria for sustainable water resources management7

Environmental ethics13

1-3 Current and Potential Future Global Water Shortages15

Impact of current and projected world population15

Potential global water shortages19

Water scarcity19

Potential regional water shortages in the continental United States20

1-4 The Important Role of Water Reclamation and Reuse23

Types of water reuse24

Integrated water resources planning24

Personnel needs/sustainable engineering27

Treatment and technology needs27

Infrastructure and planning issues28

1-5 Water Reclamation and Reuse and Its Future30

Implementation hurdles31

Public support31

Acceptance varies depending on opportunity and necessity31

Public water supply from polluted water sources31

Advances in water reclamation technologies31

Challenges for water reclamation and reuse32

Problems and Discussion Topics32

References33

2 Water Reuse:Past and Current Practices37

Working Terminology38

2-1 Evolution of Water Reclamation and Reuse39

Historical development prior to 196039

Era of water reclamation and reuse in the United States-post-196041

2-2 Impact of State and Federal Statutes on Water Reclamation and Reuse45

The Clean Water Act45

The Safe Drinking Water Act46

2-3 Water Reuse—Current Status in the United States46

Withdrawal of water from surface and groundwater sources46

Availability and reuse of treated wastewater46

Milestone water reuse projects and research studies47

2-4 Water Reuse in California:A Case Study47

Experience with water reuse47

Current water reuse status48

Water reuse policies and recycling regulations51

Potential future uses of reclaimed water52

2-5 Water Reuse in Florida:A Case Study53

Experience with water reuse54

Current water reuse status54

Water reuse policies and recycling regulations56

Potential future uses of reclaimed water56

2-6 Water Reuse in Other Parts of the World58

Significant developments worldwide58

The World Health Organization's water reuse guidelines59

Water reuse in developing countries59

2-7 Summary and Lessons Learned63

Problems and Discussion Topics65

References66

Part 2 Health and Environmental Concerns in Water Reuse71

3 Characteristics of Municipal Wastewater and Related Health and Environmental Issues73

Working Terminology74

3-1 Wastewater in Public Water Supplies—de facto Potable Reuse77

Presence of treated wastewater in public water supplies78

Impact of the presence of treated wastewater on public water supplies78

3-2 Introduction to Waterborne Diseases and Health Issues78

Important historical events79

Waterborne disease80

Etiology of waterborne disease81

3-3 Waterborne Pathogenic Microorganisms83

Terminology conventions for organisms83

Log removal83

Bacteria83

Protozoa87

Helminths89

Viruses89

3-4 Indicator Organisms92

Characteristics of an ideal indicator organism92

The coliform group bacteria93

Bacteriophages93

Other indicator organisms94

3-5 Occurrence of Microbial Pathogens in Untreated and Treated Wastewater and in the Environment94

Pathogens in untreated wastewater94

Pathogens in treated wastewater97

Pathogens in the environment102

Survival of pathogenic organisms102

3-6 Chemical Constituents in Untreated and Treated Wastewater103

Chemical constituents in untreated wastewater103

Constituents added through domestic commercial and industrial usage104

Chemical constituents in treated wastewater108

Formation of disinfection byproducts(DBPs)113

Comparison of treated wastewater to natural water114

Use of surrogate parameters115

3-7 Emerging Contaminants in Water and Wastewater117

Endocrine disruptors and pharmaceutically active chemicals117

Some specific constituents with emerging concern118

New and reemerging microorganisms120

3-8 Environmental Issues120

Effects on soils and plants121

Effects on surface water and groundwater121

Effects on ecosystems121

Effects on development and land use122

Problems and Discussion Topics122

References124

4 Water Reuse Regulations and Guidelines131

Working Terminology132

4-1 Understanding Regulatory Terminology134

Standard and criterion134

Standard versus criterion134

Regulation135

Difference between regulations and guidelines135

Water reclamation and reuse135

4-2 Development of Standards,Regulations,and Guidelines for Water Reuse135

Basis for water quality standards136

Development of water reuse regulations and guidelines136

The regulatory process139

4-3 General Regulatory Considerations Related to Water Reclamation and Reuse139

Constituents and physical properties of concern in wastewater139

Wastewater treatment and water quality considerations142

Reclaimed water quality monitoring145

Storage requirements146

Reclaimed water application rates147

Aerosols and windborne sprays147

4-4 Regulatory Considerations for Specific Water Reuse Applications149

Agricultural irrigation149

Landscape irrigation150

Dual distribution systems and in-building uses151

Impoundments152

Industrial uses153

Other nonpotable uses153

Groundwater recharge154

4-5 Regulatory Considerations for Indirect Potable Reuse155

Use of the most protected water source155

Influence of the two water acts155

Concerns for trace chemical constituents and pathogens156

Assessment of health risks157

4-6 State Water Reuse Regulations157

Status of water reuse regulations and guidelines158

Regulations and guidelines for specific reuse applications158

Regulatory requirements for nonpotable uses of reclaimed water165

State regulations for indirect potable reuse167

4-7 U.S.EPA Guidelines for Water Reuse169

Disinfection requirements169

Microbial limits178

Control measures178

Recommendations for indirect potable reuse178

4-8 World Health Organization Guidelines for Water Reuse179

1989 WHO guidelines for agriculture and aquaculture180

The Stockholm framework180

Disability adjusted life years180

Concept of tolerable(acceptable)risk181

Tolerable microbial risk in water181

2006 WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater in agriculture182

4-9 Future Directions in Regulations and Guidelines184

Continuing development of state standards,regulations,and guidelines184

Technical advances in treatment processes184

Information needs184

Problems and Discussion Topics185

References187

5 Health Risk Analysis in Water Reuse Applications191

Working Terminology192

5-1 Risk Analysis:An Overview193

Historical development of risk assessment194

Objectives and applications of human health risk assessment194

Elements of risk analysis194

Risk analysis:definitions and concepts196

5-2 Health Risk Assessment197

Hazard identification198

Dose-response assessment198

Dose-response models200

Exposure assessment204

Risk characterization204

Comparison of human health and ecological risk assessment205

5-3 Risk Management205

5-4 Risk Communication206

5-5 Tools and Methods Used in Risk Assessment207

Concepts from public health207

Concepts from epidemiology208

Concepts from toxicology209

National toxicology program cancer bioassay213

Ecotoxicology:environmental effects214

5-6 Chemical Risk Assessment215

Safety and risk determination in regulation of chemical agents215

Risks from potential nonthreshold toxicants220

Risk considerations224

Chemical risk assessment summary225

5-7 Microbial Risk Assessment225

Infectious disease paradigm for microbial risk assessment225

Microbial risk assessment methods227

Static microbial risk assessment models227

Dynamic microbial risk assessment models229

Selecting a microbial risk model232

5-8 Application of Microbial Risk Assessment in Water Reuse Applications234

Microbial risk assessment employing a static model234

Microbial risk assessment employing dynamic models239

Risk assessment for water reuse from enteric viruses244

5-9 Limitations in Applying Risk Assessment to Water Reuse Applications249

Relative nature of risk assessment249

Inadequate consideration of secondary infections249

Limited dose-response data250

Problems and Discussion Topics250

References251

Part 3 Technologies and Systems for Water Reclamation and Reuse255

6 Water Reuse Technologies and Treatment Systems:An Overview257

Working Terminology258

6-1 Constituents in Untreated Municipal Wastewater260

6-2 Technology Issues in Water Reclamation and Reuse260

Water reuse applications262

Water quality requirements262

Multiple barrier concept263

Need for multiple treatment technologies265

6-3 Treatment Technologies for Water Reclamation Applications265

Removal of dissolved organic matter,suspended solids,and nutrients by secondary treatment268

Removal of residual particulate matter in secondary effluent269

Removal of residual dissolved constituents271

Removal of trace constituents271

Disinfection processes271

6-4 Important Factors in the Selection of Technologies for Water Reuse272

Multiple water reuse applications273

Need to remove trace constituents273

Need to conduct pilot-scale testing276

Process reliability276

Standby and redundancy considerations279

Infrastructure needs for water reuse applications280

6-5 Impact of Treatment Plant Location on Water Reuse281

Centralized treatment plants282

Satellite treatment facilities282

Decentralized treatment facilities283

6-6 The Future of Water Reclamation Technologies and Treatment Systems286

Implication of trace constituents on future water reuse287

New regulations287

Retrofitting existing treatment plants288

New treatment plants289

Satellite treatment systems289

Decentralized treatment facilities and systems289

New infrastructure concepts and designs290

Research needs291

Problems and Discussion Topics292

References293

7 Removal of Constituents by Secondary Treatment295

Working Terminology296

7-1 Constituents in Untreated Wastewater299

Constituents of concern299

Typical constituent concentration values299

Variability of mass loadings301

7-2 Technologies for Water Reuse Applications304

7-3 Nonmembrane Processes for Secondary Treatment307

Suitability for reclaimed water applications307

Process descriptions308

Process performance expectations310

Importance of secondary sedimentation tank design318

7-4 Nonmembrane Processes for the Control and Removal of Nutrients in Secondary Treatment320

Nitrogen control320

Nitrogen removal321

Phosphorus removal324

Process performance expectations328

7-5 Membrane Bioreactor Processes for Secondary Treatment328

Description of membrane bioreactors330

Suitability of MBRs for reclaimed water applications331

Types of membrane bioreactor systems332

Principal proprietary submerged membrane systems333

Other membrane systems338

Process performance expectations340

7-6 Analysis and Design of Membrane Bioreactor Processes340

Process analysis340

Design considerations353

Nutrient removal358

Biosolids processing361

7-7 Issues in the Selection of Secondary Treatment Processes361

Expansion of an existing plant vs. construction of a new plant362

Final use of effluent362

Comparative performance of treatment processes362

Pilot-scale studies362

Type of disinfection process362

Future water quality requirements363

Energy considerations363

Site constraints364

Economic and other considerations368

Problems and Discussion Topics368

References371

8 Removal of Residual Particulate Matter373

Working Terminology374

8-1 Characteristics of Residual Suspended Particulate Matter from Secondary Treatment Processes375

Residual constituents and properties of concern375

Removal of residual particles from secondary treatment processes385

8-2 Technologies for the Removal of Residual Suspended Particulate Matter388

Technologies for reclaimed water applications388

Process flow diagrams390

Process performance expectations390

Suitability for reclaimed water applications392

8-3 Depth Filtration392

Available filtration technologies392

Performance of depth filters398

Design considerations407

Pilot-scale studies415

Operational issues417

8-4 Surface Filtration417

Available filtration technologies419

Performance of surface filters422

Design considerations423

Pilot-scale studies425

8-5 Membrane Filtration425

Membrane terminology,types,classification,and flow patterns426

Microfiltration and ultrafiltration430

Process analysis for MF and UF membranes435

Operating characteristics and strategies for MF and UF membranes436

Membrane performance436

Design considerations441

Pilot-scale studies441

Operational issues443

8-6 Dissolved Air Flotation445

Process description445

Performance of DAF process448

Design considerations448

Operating considerations453

Pilot-scale studies453

8-7 Issues in the Selection of Technologies for the Removal of Residual Particulate Matter454

Final use of effluent454

Comparative performance of technologies455

Results of pilot-scale studies455

Type of disinfection process455

Future water quality requirements455

Energy considerations455

Site constraints455

Economic considerations455

Problems and Discussion Topics456

References459

9 Removal of Dissolved Constituents with Membranes461

Working Terminology462

9-1 Introduction to Technologies Used for the Removal of Dissolved Constituents463

Membrane separation463

Definition of osmotic pressure463

Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis465

Electrodialysis466

Typical process applications and flow diagrams467

9-2 Nanofiltration467

Types of membranes used in nanofiltration468

Application of nanofiltration471

Performance expectations471

9-3 Reverse Osmosis473

Types of membranes used in reverse osmosis473

Application of reverse osmosis474

Performance expectations474

9-4 Design and Operational Considerations for Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis Systems475

Feedwater considerations475

Pretreatment477

Treatability testing479

Membrane flux and area requirements482

Membrane fouling487

Control of membrane fouling490

Process operating parameters490

Posttreatment492

9-5 Pilot-Plant Studies for Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis499

9-6 Electrodialysis501

Description of the electrodialysis process501

Electrodialysis reversal502

Power consumption503

Design and operating considerations506

Membrane and electrode life507

Advantages and disadvantages of electrodialysis versus reverse osmosis508

9-7 Management of Membrane Waste Streams509

Membrane concentrate issues509

Thickening and drying of waste streams511

Ultimate disposal methods for membrane waste streams515

Problems and Discussion Topics519

References522

10 Removal of Residual Trace Constituents525

Working Terminology526

10-1 Introduction to Technologies Used for the Removal of Trace Constituents528

Separation processes based on mass transfer528

Chemical and biological transformation processes531

10-2 Adsorption532

Applications for adsorption532

Types of adsorbents533

Basic considerations for adsorption processes536

Adsorption process limitations551

10-3 Ion Exchange551

Applications for ion exchange552

Ion exchange materials554

Basic considerations for ion exchange processes555

Ion exchange process limitations559

10-4 Distillation560

Applications for distillation560

Distillation processes560

Basic considerations for distillation processes562

Distillation process limitations563

10-5 Chemical Oxidation563

Applications for conventional chemical oxidation563

Oxidants used in chemical oxidation processes563

Basic considerations for chemical oxidation processes566

Chemical oxidation process limitations567

10-6 Advanced Oxidation567

Applications for advanced oxidation568

Processes for advanced oxidation569

Basic considerations for advanced oxidation processes574

Advanced oxidation process limitations577

10-7 Photolysis578

Applications for photolysis578

Photolysis processes579

Basic considerations for photolysis processes579

Photolysis process limitations586

10-8 Advanced Biological Transformations586

Basic considerations for advanced biological treatment processes587

Advanced biological treatment processes588

Limitations of advanced biological transformation processes590

Problems and Discussion Topics591

References594

11 Disinfection Processes for Water Reuse Applications599

Working Terminology600

11-1 Disinfection Technologies Used for Water Reclamation602

Characteristics for an ideal disinfectant602

Disinfection agents and methods in water reclamation602

Mechanisms used to explain action of disinfectants604

Comparison of reclaimed water disinfectants605

11-2 Practical Considerations and Issues for Disinfection606

Physical facilities used for disinfection606

Factors affecting performance609

Development of the CRt Concept for predicting disinfection performance616

Application of the CRt concept for reclaimed water disinfection617

Performance comparison of disinfection technologies618

Advantages and disadvantages of alternative disinfection technologies618

11-3 Disinfection with Chlorine622

Characteristics of chlorine compounds622

Chemistry of chlorine compounds624

Breakpoint reaction with chlorine626

Measurement and reporting of disinfection process variables631

Germicidal efficiency of chlorine and various chlorine compounds in clean water631

Form of residual chlorine and contact time631

Factors that affect disinfection of reclaimed water with chlorine633

Chemical characteristics of the reclaimed water635

Modeling the chlorine disinfection process639

Required chlorine dosages for disinfection641

Assessing the hydraulic performance of chlorine contact basins644

Formation and control of disinfection byproducts650

Environmental impacts654

11-4 Disinfection with Chlorine Dioxide654

Characteristics of chlorine dioxide655

Chlorine dioxide chemistry655

Effectiveness of chlorine dioxide as a disinfectant655

Byproduct formation and control656

Environmental impacts657

11-5 Dechlorination657

Dechlorination of reclaimed water treated with chlorine and chlorine compounds657

Dechlorination of chlorine dioxide with sulfur dioxide660

11-6 Disinfection with Ozone660

Ozone properties660

Ozone chemistry661

Ozone disinfection systems components662

Effectiveness of ozone as a disinfectant666

Modeling the ozone disinfection process666

Required ozone dosages for disinfection669

Byproduct formation and control670

Environmental impacts of using ozone671

Other benefits of using ozone671

11-7 Other Chemical Disinfection Methods671

Peracetic acid671

Combined chemical disinfection processes672

11-8 Disinfection with Ultraviolet Radiation674

Source of UV radiation674

Types of UV lamps674

UV disinfection system configurations678

Mechanism of inactivation by UV irradiation682

Factors affecting germicidal effectiveness of UV irradiation684

Modeling the UV disinfection process690

Estimating UV dose691

Ultraviolet disinfection guidelines700

Analysis of a UV disinfection system708

Operational issues with UV disinfection systems708

Environmental impacts of UV irradiation711

Problems and Discussion Topics712

References718

12 Satellite Treatment Systems for Water Reuse Applications725

Working Terminology726

12-1 Introduction to Satellite Systems727

Types of satellite treatment systems728

Important factors in selecting the use of satellite systems730

12-2 Planning Considerations for Satellite Systems730

Identification of near-term and future reclaimed water needs730

Integration with existing facilities731

Siting considerations731

Public perception,legal aspects,and institutional issues734

Economic considerations735

Environmental considerations735

Governing regulations735

12-3 Satellite Systems for Nonagricultural Water Reuse Applications735

Reuse in buildings736

Landscape irrigation736

Lakes and recreational enhancement736

Groundwater recharge736

Industrial applications737

12-4 Collection System Requirements738

Interception type satellite system738

Extraction type satellite system738

Upstream type satellite system739

12-5 Wastewater Characteristics739

Interception type satellite system740

Extraction type satellite system740

Upstream type satellite system741

12-6 Infrastructure Facilities for Satellite Treatment Systems741

Diversion and junction structures741

Flow equalization and storage744

Pumping,transmission,and distribution of reclaimed water745

12-7 Treatment Technologies for Satellite Systems745

Conventional technologies745

Membrane bioreactors746

Sequencing batch reactor746

12-8 Integration with Existing Facilities748

12-9 Case Study 1:Solaire Building New York,New York751

Setting751

Water management issues751

Implementation752

Lessons learned753

12-10 Case Study 2:Water Reclamation and Reuse in Tokyo,Japan755

Setting755

Water management issues755

Implementation756

Lessons learned758

12-11 Case Study 3:City of Upland,California760

Setting760

Water management issues760

Implementation760

Lessons learned761

Problems and Discussion Topics761

References762

13 Onsite and Decentralized Systems for Water Reuse763

Working Terminology764

13-1 Introduction to Decentralized Systems766

Definition of decentralized systems766

Importance of decentralized systems767

Integration with centralized systems770

13-2 Types of Decentralized Systems770

Individual onsite systems771

Cluster systems771

Housing development and small community systems772

13-3 Wastewater Flowrates and Characteristics774

Wastewater flowrates774

Wastewater constituent concentrations778

13-4 Treatment Technologies785

Source separating systems786

In-building pretreatment788

Primary treatment788

Secondary treatment792

Nutrient removal797

Disinfection processes802

Performance804

Reliability804

Maintenance needs804

13-5 Technologies for Housing Developments and Small Community Systems806

Collection systems807

Treatment technologies815

13-6 Decentralized Water Reuse Opportunities816

Landscape irrigation systems816

Irrigation with greywater818

Groundwater recharge818

Self-contained recycle systems821

Habitat development821

13-7 Management and Monitoring of Decentralized Systems821

Types of management structures821

Monitoring and control equipment824

Problems and Discussion Topics826

References827

14 Distribution and Storage of Reclaimed Water829

Working Terminology830

14-1 Issues in the Planning Process831

Type,size,and location of facilities831

Individual reclaimed water system versus dual distribution system832

Public concerns and involvement833

14-2 Planning and Conceptual Design of Distribution and Storage Facilities833

Location of reclaimed water supply,major users,and demands834

Quantities and pressure requirements for major demands834

Distribution system network836

Facility design criteria841

Distribution system analysis845

Optimization of distribution system847

14-3 Pipeline Design856

Location of reclaimed water pipelines856

Design criteria for reclaimed water pipelines858

Pipeline materials858

Joints and connections860

Corrosion protection861

Pipe identification862

Distribution system valves863

Distribution system appurtenances863

14-4 Pumping Systems866

Pumping station location and site layout866

Pump types867

Pumping station performance870

Constant versus variable speed operation870

Valves871

Equipment and piping layout872

Emergency power872

Effect of pump operating schedule on system design875

14-5 Design of Reclaimed Water Storage Facilities877

Location of reclaimed water reservoirs878

Facility and site layout for reservoirs,piping,and appurtenances879

Materials of construction881

Protective coatings—interior and exterior881

14-6 Operation and Maintenance of Distribution Facilities　882

Pipelines883

Pumping stations884

14-7 Water Quality Management Issues in Reclaimed Water Distribution and Storage884

Water quality issues885

Impact of water quality issues887

The effect of storage on water quality changes887

Strategies for managing water quality in open and enclosed reservoirs889

Problems and Discussion Topics892

References898

15 Dual Plumbing Systems901

Working Terminology902

15-1 Overview of Dual Plumbing Systems902

Rationale for dual plumbing systems902

Applications for dual plumbing systems903

15-2 Planning Considerations for Dual Plumbing Systems907

Applications for dual plumbing systems907

Regulations and codes governing dual plumbing systems908

Applicable health and safety regulations908

15-3 Design Considerations for Dual Distribution Systems908

Plumbing codes908

Safeguards908

15-4 Inspection and Operating Considerations913

15-5 Case Study:Irvine Ranch Water District,Orange County,California915

Setting915

Water management issues915

Implementation916

Operational issues918

Lessons learned919

15-6 Case Study:Rouse Hill Recycled Water Area Project(Australia)919

Setting919

Water management issues920

Implementation920

Lessons learned920

15-7 Case Study:Serrano,California921

Setting922

Water management issues922

Implementation923

Lessons learned925

Problems and Discussion Topics925

References926

Part 4 Water Reuse Applications927

16 Water Reuse Applications:An Overview929

Working Terminology930

16-1 Water Reuse Applications930

Agricultural irrigation931

Landscape irrigation931

Industrial uses931

Urban nonirrigation uses933

Environmental and recreational uses933

Groundwater recharge933

Indirect potable reuse through surface water augmentation933

Direct potable reuse934

Water reuse applications in other parts of the world934

16-2 Issues in Water Reuse934

Resource sustainability934

Water resource opportunities935

Reliability of water supply935

Economic considerations935

Public policy935

Regulations936

Issues and constraints for specific applications937

16-3 Important Factors in the Selection of Water Reuse Applications937

Water quality considerations937

Types of technology939

Matching supply and demand939

Infrastructure requirements939

Economic feasibility(affordability)940

Environmental considerations941

16-4 Future Trends in Water Reuse Applications941

Changes in regulations942

Water supply augmentation942

Decentralized and satellite systems942

New treatment technologies942

Issues associated with potable reuse944

Problems and Discussion Topics944

References945

17 Agricultural Uses of Reclaimed Water947

Working Terminology948

17-1 Agricultural Irrigation with Reclaimed Water:An Overview949

Reclaimed water irrigation for agriculture in the United States950

Reclaimed water irrigation for agriculture in the world952

Regulations and guidelines related to agricultural irrgation with reclaimed water953

17-2 Agronomics and Water Quality Considerations954

Soil characteristics955

Suspended solids958

Salinity,sodicity,and specific ion toxicity959

Trace elements and nutrients966

Crop selection971

17-3 Elements for the Design of Reclaimed Water Irrigation Systems971

Water reclamation and reclaimed water quantity and quality977

Selection of the type of irrigation system977

Leaching requirements986

Estimation of water application rate989

Field area requirements997

Drainage systems998

Drainage water management and disposal1003

Storage system1003

Irrigation scheduling1008

17-4 Operation and Maintenance of Reclaimed Water Irrigation Systems1008

Demand-supply management1009

Nutrient management1009

Public health protection1011

Effects of reclaimed water irrigation on soils and crops1011

Monitoring requirements1014

17-5 Case Study:Monterey Wastewater Reclamation Study for Agriculture—Monterey,California1015

Setting1016

Water management issues1016

Implementation1016

Study results1017

Subsequent projects1021

Recycled water food safety study1021

Lessons learned1021

17-6 Case Study:Water Conserv II,Florida1022

Setting1023

Water management issues1023

Implementation1023

Importance of Water Conserv Ⅱ1027

Lessons learned1027

17-7 Case Study:The Virginia Pipeline Scheme,South Australia—Seasonal ASR of Reclaimed Water for irrigation1028

Setting1028

Water management issues1029

Regulatory requirements1029

Technology issues1029

Implementation1030

Performance and operations1032

Lessons learned1035

Problems and Discussion Topics1035

References1038

18 Landscape Irrigation with Reclaimed Water1043

Working Terminology1044

18-1 Landscape Irrigation:An Overview1045

Definition of landscape irrigation1045

Reclaimed water use for landscape irrigation in the United States1046

18-2 Design and Operational Considerations for Reclaimed Water Landscape Irrigation Systems1047

Water quality requirements1047

Landscape plant selection1050

Irrigation systems1054

Estimation of water needs1054

Application rate and irrigation schedule1065

Management of demand-supply balance1065

Operation and maintenance issues1066

18-3 Golf Course Irrigation with Reclaimed Water1070

Water quality and agronomic considerations1070

Reclaimed water supply and storage1072

Distribution system design considerations1075

Leaching,drainage,and runoff1076

Other considerations1076

18-4 Irrigation of Public Areas with Reclaimed Water1076

Irrigation of public areas1078

Reclaimed water treatment and water quality1079

Conveyance and distribution system1079

Aesthetics and public acceptance1079

Operation and maintenance issues1080

18-5 Residential Landscape Irrigation with Reclaimed Water1080

Residential landscape irrigation systems1080

Reclaimed water treatment and water quality1081

Conveyance and distribution system1081

Operation and maintenance issues1082

18-6 Landscape Irrigation with Decentralized Treatment and Subsurface Irrigation Systems1082

Subsurface drip irrigation for individual on-site and cluster systems1082

Irrigation for residential areas1086

18-7 Case Study:Landscape Irrigation in St.Petersburg,Florida1086

Setting1087

Water management issues1087

Implementation1087

Project Greenleaf and resource management1089

Landscape irrigation in the city of St.Petersburg1091

Lessons learned1093

18-8 Case Study:Residential Irrigation in El Dorado Hills,California1093

Water management issues1094

Implementation1094

Education program1096

Lessons learned1096

Problems and Discussion Topics1097

References1099

19 Industrial Uses of Reclaimed Water1103

Working Terminology1104

19-1 Industrial Uses of Reclaimed Water:An Overview1105

Status of water use for industrial applications in the United States1105

Water management in industries1107

Factors affecting the use of reclaimed water for industrial applications1108

19-2 Water Quality Issues for Industrial Uses of Reclaimed Water1109

General water quality considerations1110

Corrosion issues1110

Indexes for assessing effects of reclaimed water quality on reuse systems1115

Corrosion management options1126

Scaling issues1127

Accumulation of dissolved constituents1129

19-3 Cooling Water Systems1132

System description1132

Water quality considerations1132

Design and operational considerations1135

Management issues1138

19-4 Other Industrial Water Reuse Applications1141

Boilers1141

Pulp and paper industry1147

Textile industry1150

Other industrial applications1154

19-5 Case Study:Cooling Tower at a Thermal Power Generation Plant,Denver,Colorado1155

Setting1155

Water management issues1156

Implementation1158

Lessons learned1158

19-6 Case Study:Industrial Uses of Reclaimed Water in West Basin Municipal Water District,California1158

Setting1158

Water management issues1158

Implementation1159

Lessons learned1161

Problems and Discussion Topics1161

References1165

20 Urban Nonirrigation Water Reuse Applications1169

Working Terminology1170

20-1 Urban Water Use and Water Reuse Applications:An Overview1171

Domestic potable water use in the United States1171

Commercial water use in the United States1172

Urban nonirrigation water reuse in the United States1172

Urban nonirrigation water reuse in other countries1172

20-2 Factors Affecting the Use of Reclaimed Water for Urban Nonirrigation Reuse Applications1175

Infrastructure issues1175

Water quality and supply issues1176

Acceptance issues1179

20-3 Air Conditioning1179

Description of air conditioning systems1179

Utilizing reclaimed water for air conditioning systems1181

Water quality considerations1181

Management issues1183

20-4 Fire Protection1183

Types of applications1186

Water quality considerations1187

Implementation issues1187

Management issues1188

20-5 Toilet and Urinal Flushing1188

Types of applications1188

Water quality considerations1188

Implementation issues1192

Satellite and decentralized systems1193

Management issues1193

20-6 Commercial Applications1195

Car and other vehicle washing1195

Laundries1196

20-7 Public Water Features1197

Fountains and waterfalls1197

Reflecting pools1197

Ponds and lakes in public parks1198

20-8 Road Care and Maintenance1198

Dust control and street cleaning1199

Snow melting1199

Problems and Discussion Topics1200

References1201

21 Environmental and Recreational Uses of Reclaimed Water1203

Working Terminology1204

21-1 Overview of Environmental and Recreational Uses of Reclaimed Water1205

Types of environmental and recreational uses1206

Important factors influencing environmental and recreational uses of reclaimed water1207

21-2 Wetlands1210

Types of wetlands1210

Development of wetlands with reclaimed water1213

Water quality considerations1216

Operations and maintenance1216

21-3 Stream Flow Augmentation1222

Aquatic and riparian habitat enhancement with reclaimed water1222

Recreational uses of streams augmented with reclaimed water1224

Reclaimed water quality requirements1224

Stream flow requirements1226

Operations and maintenance1226

21-4 Ponds and Lakes1228

Water quality requirements1228

Operations and maintenance1230

Other considerations1230

21-5 Other Uses1231

Snowmaking1231

Animal viewing parks1231

21-6 Case Study:Arcata,California1231

Setting1232

Water management issues1232

Implementation1232

Lessons learned1233

21-7 Case Study:San Luis Obispo,California1234

Setting1234

Water management issues1235

Implementation1235

Lessons learned1238

21-8 Case Study:Santee Lakes,San Diego,California1238

Setting1239

Water management issues1239

Implementation1239

Lessons learned1241

Problems and Discussion Topics1242

References1242

22 Groundwater Recharge with Reclaimed Water1245

Working Terminology1246

22-1 Planned Groundwater Recharge with Reclaimed Water1248

Advantages of subsurface storage1248

Types of groundwater recharge1249

Components of a groundwater recharge system1250

Technologies for groundwater recharge1251

Selection of recharge system1253

Recovery of recharge water1254

22-2 Water Quality Requirements1255

Water quality challenges for groundwater recharge1255

Degree of pretreatment required1255

22-3 Recharge Using Surface Spreading Basins1256

Description1256

Pretreatment needs1257

Hydraulic analysis1259

Operation and maintenance issues1268

Performance of recharge basins1271

Pathogens1279

Examples of full-scale surface spreading facilities1280

22-4 Recharge Using Vadose Zone Injection Wells1282

Description1282

Pretreatment needs1283

Hydraulic analysis1284

Operation and maintenance issues1285

Performance of vadose zone injection wells1286

Examples of operational full-scale vadose zone injection facilities1286

22-5 Recharge Using Direct Injection Wells1287

Description1287

Pretreatment needs1288

Hydraulic analysis1288

Operation and maintenance issues1290

Performance of direct injection wells1291

Examples of full-scale direct aquifer injection facilities1292

22-6 Other Methods Used for Groundwater Recharge1293

Aquifer storage and recovery(ASR)1293

Riverbank and dune filtration1294

Enhanced river recharge1295

Groundwater recharge using subsurface facilities1296

22-7 Case Study:Orange County Water District Groundwater Replenishment System1296

Setting1297

The GWR system1297

Implementation1297

Lessons learned1298

Problems and Discussion Topics1299

References1300

23 Indirect Potable Reuse through Surface Water Augmentation1303

Working Terminology1304

23-1 Overview of Indirect Potable Reuse1305

De facto indirect potable reuse1305

Strategies for indirect potable reuse through surface-water augmentation1307

Public acceptance1308

23-2 Health and Risk Considerations1308

Pathogen and trace constituents1308

System reliability1309

Use of multiple barriers1309

23-3 Planning for Indirect Potable Reuse1309

Characteristics of the watershed1310

Quantity of reclaimed water to be blended1311

Water and wastewater treatment requirements1312

Institutional considerations1312

Cost considerations1313

23-4 Technical Considerations for Surface-Water Augmentation in Lakes and Reservoirs1314

Characteristics of water supply reservoirs1314

Modeling of lakes and reservoirs1319

Strategies for augmenting water supply reservoirs1320

23-5 Case Study:Implementing Indirect Potable Reuse at the Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority1323

Setting1323

Water management issues1323

Description of treatment components1323

Future treatment process directions1326

Water quality of the Occoquan Reservoir1327

Water treatment1328

Lessons learned1329

23-6 Case Study:City of San Diego Water Repurification Proiect and Water Reuse Study 20051329

Setting1330

Water management issues1330

Wastewater treatment mandates1330

Water Repurification Project1331

2000 Updated Water Reclamation Master Plan1332

City of San Diego Water Reuse Study 20051332

Lessons learned1334

23-7 Case Study:Singapore's NEWater for Indirect Potable Reuse1334

Setting1335

Water management issues1335

NEWater Factory and NEWater1335

Implementation1335

NEWater demonstration plant performance1336

Project milestones1336

Lessons learned1337

23-8 Observations on Indirect Potable Reuse1340

Problems and Discussion Topics1341

References1342

24 Direct Potable Reuse of Reclaimed Water1345

Working Terminology1346

24-1 Issues in Direct Potable Reuse1346

Public perception1347

Health risk concerns1347

Technological capabilities1347

Cost considerations1348

24-2 Case Study:Emergency Potable Reuse in Chanute,Kansas1348

Setting1348

Water management issues1349

Implementation1349

Efficiency of sewage treatment and the overall treatment process1349

Lessons learned1351

Importance of the Chanute experience1352

24-3 Case Study:Direct Potable Reuse in Windhoek,Namibia1352

Setting1353

Water management issues1353

Implementation1354

Lessons learned1359

24-4 Case Study:Direct Potable Reuse Demonstration Project in Denver,Colorado1361

Setting1362

Water management issues1362

Treatment technologies1362

Water quality testing and studies1364

Animal health effects testing1371

Cost estimates on the potable reuse advanced treatment plant1372

Public information program1373

Lessons learned1374

24-5 Observations on Direct Potable Reuse1375

Problems and Discussion Topics1376

References1376

Part 5 Implementing Water Reuse1379

25 Planning for Water Reclamation and Reuse1381

Working Terminology1382

25-1 Integrated Water Resources Planning1384

Integrated water resources planning process1385

Clarifying the problem1386

Formulating objectives1386

Gathering background information1386

Identifying project alternatives1388

Evaluating and ranking alternatives1389

Developing implementation plans1389

25-2 Engineering Issues in Water Reclamation and Reuse Planning1392

25-3 Environmental Assessment and Public Participation1392

Environmental assessment1393

Public participation and outreach1393

25-4 Legal and Institutional Aspects of Water Reuse1393

Water rights law1393

Water rights and water reuse1395

Policies and regulations1397

Institutional coordination1397

25-5 Case Study:Institutional Arrangements at the Walnut Valley Water District,California1397

Water management issues1397

Lessons learned1398

25-6 Reclaimed Water Market Assessment1399

Steps in data collection and analysis1399

Comparison of water sources1399

Comparison with costs and revenues1401

Market assurances1402

25-7 Factors Affecting Monetary Evaluation of Water Reclamation and Reuse1406

Common weaknesses in water reclamation and reuse planning1407

Perspectives in project analysis1408

Planning and design time horizons1408

Time value of money1409

Inflation and cost indices1409

25-8 Economic Analysis for Water Reuse1411

Comparison of alternatives by present worth analysis1412

Measurement of costs and inflation1412

Measurement of benefits1412

Basic assumptions of economic analyses1414

Replacement costs and salvage values1415

Computation of economic cost1417

Project optimization1420

Influence of subsidies1421

25-9 Financial Analysis1422

Construction financial plans and revenue programs1422

Cost allocation1423

Influence on freshwater rates1423

Other financial analysis considerations1423

Sources of revenue and pricing of reclaimed water1424

Financial feasibility analysis1425

Sensitivity analysis and conservative assumptions1429

Problems and Discussion Topics1430

References1432

26 Public Participation and Implementation Issues1435

Working Terminology1436

26-1 How Is Water Reuse Perceived?1436

Public attitude about water reuse1436

Public beliefs about water reuse options1440

26-2 Public Perspectives on Water Reuse1440

Water quality and public health1441

Economics1441

Water supply and growth1441

Environmental justice/equity issues1441

The"Yuck"factor1442

Other issues1442

26-3 Public Participation and Outreach1443

Why involve the public?1443

Legal mandates for public involvement1443

Defining the"public"1444

Approaches to public involvement1444

Techniques for public participation and outreach1446

Some pitfalls in types of public involvement1448

26-4 Case Study:Difficulties Encountered in Redwood City's Landscape Irrigation Project1450

Setting1450

Water management issues1450

Water reclamation project planned1450

Lessons learned1452

26-5 Case Study:Water Reclamation and Reuse in the City of St.Petersburg,Florida1453

Setting1453

Water and wastewater management issues1453

Development of reclaimed water system1455

Current status of water reclamation and reuse1456

Lessons learned1456

Access to city's proactive water reclamation and reuse information1458

26-6 Observations on Water Reclamation and Reuse1459

Problems and Discussion Topics1459

References1460

Appendixes1463

A Conversion Factors1463

B Physical Properties of Selected Gases and the Composition of Air1471

C Physical Properties of Water1475

D Statistical Analysis of Data1479

E Review of Water Reclamation Activities in the United States and in Selected Countries1485

F Evolution of Nonpotable Reuse Criteria and Groundwater Recharge Regulations in California1509

G Values of the Hantush Function F(α,β) and the Well Function W(u)1523

H Interest Factors and Their Use1525

Indexes1529

Name Index1529

Subject Index1541