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PART Ⅰ PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS3

1 The Complexity of Linguistic Structure3

1.1 A sociological problem3

1.2 The structure of a simple sentence5

1.3 Phonological structure7

1.4 Syntactic structure9

1.5 Semantic/conceptual and spatial structure11

1.6 Connecting the levels13

1.7 Anaphora and unbounded dependencies15

2 Language as a Mental Phenomenon19

2.1 What do we mean by"mental"?19

2.2 How to interpret linguistic notation mentally23

2.3 Knowledge of language27

2.4 Competence versus performance29

2.5 Language in a social context(all too briefly)34

3 Combinatoriality38

3.1 The need for an f-mental grammar38

3.2 Some types of rule40

3.2.1 Formation rules and typed variables41

3.2.2 Derivational(transformational)rules45

3.2.3 Constraints48

3.3 Lexical rules51

3.3.1 Lexical formation rules51

3.3.2 Lexical redundancy rules53

3.3.3 Inheritance hierarchies54

3.4 What are rules of grammar?55

3.5 Four challenges for cognitive neuroscience58

3.5.1 The massiveness of the binding problem58

3.5.2 The Problem of 261

3.5.3 The problem of variables64

3.5.4 Binding in working memory vs.long-term memory65

4 Universal Grammar68

4.1 The logic of the argument68

4.2 Getting the hypothesis right71

4.3 Linguistic universals74

4.4 Substantive universals,repertoire of rule types,and architectural universals77

4.5 The balance of linguistic and more general capacities78

4.6 The poverty of the stimulus;the Paradox of Language Acquisition82

4.7 Poverty of the stimulus in word learning87

4.8 How Universal Grammar can be related to genetics90

4.9 Evidence outside linguistic structure for Universal Grammar/Language Acquisition Device94

4.9.1 Species-specificity94

4.9.2 Characteristic timing of acquisition95

4.9.3 Dissociations97

4.9.4 Language creation99

4.10 Summary of factors involved in the theory of Universal Grammar101

PART Ⅱ ARCHITECTURAL FOUNDATIONS107

5 The Parallel Architecture107

5.1 Introduction to Part Ⅱ107

5.2 A short history of syntactocentrism107

5.3 Tiers and interfaces in phonology111

5.4 Syntax and phonology118

5.5 Semantics as a generative system123

5.6 The tripartite theory and some variants125

5.7 The lexicon and lexical licensing130

5.8 Introduction to argument structure132

5.9 How much of syntactic argument structure can be predicted from semantics?138

5.9.1 Number of syntactic arguments139

5.9.2 Category of syntactic arguments140

5.9.3 Position of syntactic arguments142

5.9.4 Locality of syntactic arguments,and exceptions144

5.10 A tier for grammatical functions?149

6 Lexical Storage versus Online Construction152

6.1 Lexical items versus words152

6.2 Lexical items smaller than words154

6.2.1 Productive morphology155

6.2.2 Semiproductive morphology158

6.2.3 The necessity of a heterogeneous theory160

6.3 Psycholinguistic considerations163

6.4 The status of lexical redundancy rules165

6.5 Idioms167

6.6 A class of constructional idioms172

6.7 Generalizing the notion of construction178

6.8 The status of inheritance hierarchies183

6.9 Issues of acquisition187

6.10 Universal Grammar as a set of attractors190

6.11 Appendix:Remarks on HPSG and Construction Grammar194

7 Implications for Processing196

7.1 The parallel competence architecture forms a basis for a processing architecture196

7.2 How the competence model can constrain theories of processing200

7.3 Remarks on working memory205

7.4 More about lexical access207

7.4.1 Lexical access in perception207

7.4.2 Priming209

7.4.3 Lexical access in production211

7.4.4 Speech errors and tip-of-the-tongue states215

7.4.5 Syntactic priming217

7.5 Structure-constrained modularity218

7.5.1 Fodor's view and an alternative218

7.5.2 Interface modules are how integrative modules talk to each other221

7.5.3 The"bi-domain specificity"of interface modules223

7.5.4 Multiple inputs and outputs on the same"blackboard"227

7.5.5 Informational encapsulation among levels of structure228

8 An Evolutionary Perspective on the Architecture231

8.1 The dialectic231

8.2 Bickerton's proposal and auxiliary assumptions235

8.3 The use of symbols238

8.4 Open class of symbols241

8.5 A generative system for single symbols:proto-phonology242

8.6 Concatenation of symbols to build larger utterances245

8.7 Using linear position to signal semantic relations246

8.8 Phrase structure252

8.9 Vocabulary for relational concepts253

8.10 Grammatical categories and the"basic body plan"of syntax257

8.11 Morphology and grammatical functions259

8.12 Universal Grammar as a toolkit again261

PART Ⅲ SEMANTIC AND CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS267

9 Semantics as a Mentalistic Enterprise267

9.1 Introduction to part Ⅲ267

9.2 Semantics vis-à-vis mainstream generative grammar268

9.3 Meaning and its interfaces271

9.4 Chomsky and Fodor on semantics275

9.5 Some"contextualist"approaches to meaning280

9.6 Is there a specifically linguistic semantics?281

9.7 Four non-ways to separate linguistic semantics from conceptualization285

9.7.1 Semantics="dictionary";pragmatics="encyclopedia"285

9.7.2 Logical vs.nonlogical semantic properties287

9.7.3 Grammatically realized vs.grammatically irrelevant content289

9.7.4 Language-specific semantics implying a special linguistic semantics291

10 Reference and Truth294

10.1 Introduction294

10.2 Problems with the common-sense view:"language"295

10.3 Problems with the common-sense view:"objects"300

10.4 Pushing"the world"into the mind303

10.5 A simple act of deictic reference306

10.6 The functional correlates of consciousness310

10.7 Application to theory of reference314

10.8 Entities other than objects315

10.9 Proper names,kinds,and abstract objects318

10.9.1 Proper names318

10.9.2 Kinds319

10.9.3 Abstract objects322

10.10 Satisfaction and truth324

10.11 Objectivity,error,and the role of the community329

11 Lexical Semantics333

11.1 Boundary conditions on theories of lexical meaning333

11.2 The prospects for decomposition into primitives334

11.3 Polysemy339

11.4 Taxonomic structure343

11.5 Contributions from perceptual modalities345

11.6 Other than necessary and sufficient conditions350

11.6.1 Categories with graded boundaries351

11.6.2 "Cluster"concepts352

11.7 The same abstract organization in many semantic fields356

11.8 Function-argument structure across semantic fields360

11.8.1 Some basic state-and event-functions360

11.8.2 Building verb meanings364

11.9 Qualia structure:characteristic activities and purposes369

11.10 Dot objects373

11.11 Beyond375

12 Phrasal Semantics378

12.1 Simple composition378

12.1.1 Argument satisfaction378

12.1.2 Modification382

12.1.3 Lambda extraction and variable binding384

12.1.4 Parallels in lexical semantics386

12.2 Enriched composition387

12.3 The referential tier394

12.4 Referential dependence and referential frames398

12.5 The information structure (topic/focus)tier408

12.6 Phrasal semantics and Universal Grammar417

12.7 Beyond:discourse,conversation,narrative418

13 Concluding Remarks422

References431

Index463